Full text of "Automobile starting, lighting and ignition, elementary principles, practical application, wiring diagrams and repair hints : a complete exposition explaining all forms of electrical ignition systems used with internal combustion engines of all types, also includes a comprehensive series of instructions pertaining to starting and lighting systems of automobiles : describes storage battery construction and maintenance, magneto timing, care of motors and generators and systematic location of all electrical faults"

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8ZB' ^2.(0

J^arbarli College i-ttirarg

LIBRARY OF THE

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

BUREAU OF
VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE

TRANSFERRED

EGE

NEW YORK

THE NORMAM W. HENLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY

S WEST 45th STREET

1919

Z-r^. bxi.^r.^

--r--^"f^-t5tr

NARVARD UNIVERSITY

DIVISION OF EDUCA (ION

WWtlAU or VOCATIONAL UU1»AN0&

HARVARD COLLEGE LIBRARY

IRANSFEI^ED FROM THE

LIBRARY OF THE

eUADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATK)!!

1930

Copyrighted 1917 and 1916, by
THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY

SIXTH IMPRESSION

NOTE. — AU iUustrations in this book have
been specially made by the publishers, and their
use without permission is strictly prohibited.

6 ' Introduction

One of the pronounced developments of the last six years
has been the general adoption of various starting means for
setting the engine in motion without recourse to the usual form
of hand crank. Some of these motor starting systems merely re-
place the usual hand crank with some means of turning the motor
over without leaving the seat by purely mechanical connections.
Very few, on 1912 and 1913 models of obsolete cars, depend on air
pressure, while the most popular and generally applied forms to
1919 model cars depend on electricity as a source of power for a
small electric starting motor. Electric starting and lighting sys-
tems have been made in many forms, though the basic principles
of operation are practically the same in all systems that can be
grouped in several main classifications. It will not be possible
to describe all in a general treatise of this nature, but if the
features of the leading systems are outlined it will not be difl5cult
for the repairman or student to become familiar with the principle
of other systems which may be slightly different only in points of
minor detail. Not only are the various parts of leading systems
shown, but as a result of the co-operation of the leading automobile
manufacturers, the author is enabled to show the actual applica-
tion of the various ignition, generating and starting units to lead-
ing power plants. While a certain amount of technical exposition
is unavoidable, everything has been stated as simply as possible
so readers without technical knowledge can understand the prin-
ciples and method of operation, as well as location of troubles in
the popular systems. The illustrations have been carefully selected
and all wiring diagrams are of representative systems actually in
use. The reader not versed in electrical science will find that care-
ful perusal of the chapter on "Elementary Electricity and Mag-
netism" will enable him to understand many of the more technical
descriptions and wiring diagrams. As electricity is used for oper-
ating many accessory devices besides the lighting, ignition and
motor starting units, a chapter is devoted to the unusual applica-
tions of the electric current.

The Author.

May, 1919.

8 Contents

PAcas
Cylinder Ignition — Coils for Multiple Cylinder Ignition — ^Arrange-
ment of Coil Terminals — ^High Tension Coil Ignition System — ^Timer
and Distributor Forms — ^Timers for One Cylinder — ^Multiple Contact
Timers — ^Roller Contact Timer — ^Arrangement of Timer Contacts —
Ball Contact Timer — Atwater-Kent Timer — Secondary Distributors
— ^Delco Ignition System — ^Delco Timer — ^Delco Automatic Timer
Advance — Delco Ignition Coil — ^Kesistance Unit — ^Delco Condenser —
Delco Circuit Breaker — ^Ammeter — Combination Switch — 1916 Delco
Ignition Distributor — Timing Delco Ignition — ^Westinghouse Igni-
tion Unit — Spark Plug Forms — Spark Plug Design — Construction of
Spark Plugs — Spark Plug Insulation — Spark Plug Installation —
Plugs for Two-Spark Ignition — Individual Coil Ignition System —
Typical Battery Ignition Systems — ^Vibrator Coil — ^Distributor Sys-
tems— ^Ford Magneto and Coil Ignition System — ^Master Vibrator
System — Non- Vibrator Coil Distributor System — Closed Circuit
Systems — Connecticut Automatic Ignition — Thermostatic Switch
Belease — ^Low Tension System — Low Tension Igniter Plate-
Double Ignition Systems — ^Triple Ignition Systems — ^Battery Ignition
System Troubles — ^Testing Dry Cells — ^Dry Cell Defects — C!are in Dry
Cell Installation — Storage Battery Faults — Charging Storage Bat-
teries— Appliances for Storage Battery Maintenance — ^Remedies for
Loss of Battery Capacity — "Flushing'' Undesirable — Cure for Sul-
phated Plates — ^Battery Charging Apparatus — ^Rectifiers for Alter-
nating Current — ^Lamp Bank Resistance for Direct Current — ^Edison
Cell Features — ^Winter Care of Storage Batteries — ^Freezing Points
of Electrolyte — Spark Plug Faults — Testing Spark Plugs — ^Repairing
Spark Plugs — Setting Plug Gaps — ^Induction Coil Troubles and
Remedies — Adjusting Coil Vibrators — ^Roller Contact Timer Troubles
— ^Wiring Troubles — Electro-static Effects — "Bucking," Cause and
Remedy — ^Battery Ignition System Hints — Timing Battery Ignition
Systems 66 to 184

CHAPTER III

MAGNETO IGNITION SYSTEMS

Magneto Generator Construction — Single Cylinder Magneto — Multiple
Cylinder Magneto — Magneto Systems — Arrangement of Distributor
Contacts — Speed of Armature Rotation — Low Tension Magneto
Systems — Simple Low Tension Magnetos — Oscillating Armature
Type — Governed Rotating Armature Type — ^Inductor Magnetos —

10 Contents

PAcns
Third Brush Begolation — TTpical Deleo Systems — Dyneto-Entz One-
Unit System — Advantages of One-Unit — Installation of Dyneto—
Non-Stalling Feature — Current Output of Dyneto— Cfhalmers-Entz
System — ^Auto-Lite Two-Unit System — ^Auto-Lite-Overland Systems
— 1914 Gray & Davis System — Functions of Parts — ^Path of Current
— Current Begulation — ^Typical Gray & Davis Systems — ^1915 Gray
& Davis System — ^Automatic Cut Out and Current Regulator — One*
Unit Ford System — Genemotor-Ford System — ^Northeast Ldghting
and Starting System — ^Dodge-Northeast System — ^Northeast-Univer-
sal System — ^Bijur Starting and Lighting Systems — ^Bijur-Scripps
Booth One-Unit — ^Bijur Two-Unit System — ^Bijur Output Begulating
Means — ^Vibrator Type Regulator — ^Typical Bijur Systems — Simms-
Huff Single Unit System — Charging Scheme in Huff System — ^How
Unit is Connected to Engine — ^Tracing Simms-Huff Circuits — ^Bosch-
Rushmore System — ^De-Luxe System — Standard System — ^Bosch-
Rushmore System Parts — ^Remy Starting, Lighting and Ignition
Systems — ^Remy System Units — ^Remy Current Regulation — ^Remy
Two- Armature System — Westinghouse Systems — Kemco-Fan Genera-
tor System — ^Hartford Starting and Lighting System — ^U. S. L.-
Jeffery System 312 to 421

CHAPTER VI

STARTING SYSTEM FAULTS AND THEIR SYSTEMATIC

LOCATION

Locating Troubles in Gray & Davis System — Ammeter Indications a
Guide — Systematic Search for Faults — ^Locating Short Circuit —
Faults in Motors and Generators — ^Refitting Brushes — Care of Com-
mutator— ^Faults in Wiring — Short Circuits — Open Circuits — ^Protec-
tion of Wiring — Care of Lamps — ^Brief Instructions for Care of Bat- .
tery — ^Hints for Locating Delco Troubles — Delco Testing Volt- Am-
meter— ^Delco Test Points — ^Indications of Delco Generator Troubles
— ^Testing for Defective Windings — Grounded Generator Coil —
Shorted Generator CoU — Open Generator CoU — Grounded Motor
Winding — ^Testing Cut-out Relay — ^Voltage Regulator Troubles —
Voltmeter Test — ^Troubles in Dyneto System — Dyneto Will Not Start
— Lamps Burn Dimly — ^Dyneto Starts Slowly — ^Dyneto Does Not Gen-
erate— ^Bosch-Rushmore Troubles — Adjusting Automatic Relay —
Adjusting Regulator — ^Remy System Troubles — Starter Will not
Turn Engine — Grounds and Short Circuits — All Lights Go Dim —
Generator Test — Starting Motor — Instructions for Repairing Storage
Battery 422 to 466

Contents

CHAPTER VII

MISCELLANEOUS ELECTEICAL DEVICES

PAGES

Glaring Headlights — ^Methods of Reducing Glare — ^Dimming Headlights
— ^Light Deflectors — ^Light Filters — ^Electrical Alarms — ^Buzzer Horns
— ^Motor-Driven Horns — ^Direction Indicators — Electrical Bear Sig-
nals— ^Vulcan Electric Gearshift — How Electric Gearshift Operates
— Function of Solenoids — Selective and Master Switch — ^Hartford
Electric Brake — Electric Air Heater — ^Automatic Circuit Breaker or
Safety Switch — ^Lighting Gas Headlights by Electricity — ^Low Volt-
age Electric iVulcanizers — Simple Rectifier — ^Entz Electric Trans-
mission— Operating Principles — Practical Application — ^Typical
Lighting System — Novel Electrical Lamps — New Bulb Forms — ^Dry
Battery Lamps — ^Wagner Two-Unit System — Electrical Equipment of
1917 Cars ' . . 467 to 510

INDEX 611 to 519

READY REFERENCE TO ALL WIRING

DIAGRAMS

PAGB

Atwater-Kent XJnisparker System 84

Anto-Lite-ChevTolet System ^ 345

Auto-Lite Two-Unit System 34I

Battery Ignition System (Elementary) 75

1915 Bijur-Packard System (Insert B) between 302-303

Bijnr-Apperson Two-Unit System 372

Bijur-Hnpmobile System 380

Bijur-Packard Twin Six System 378

Bijur-Scripps Booth System 371

Bijur Voltage Regulation Circuits 373

Bijur-Winton Six System 382

Bosch Dual Ignition System 219

Bosch High Tension Magneto (Simplified) 190

Bosch-Honold Magnetic Plug System 223

Bosch-Marmon System De-Luxe 393

Bosch-Bushmore Type A Motor 397

Bosch-Standard System {Insert) between 388-389

Circuits of Bemy-Oakland 32 System 399

Chalmers-Entz System 340

Complete Lighting System 490

Connecticut Closed Circuit System 121

Connecticut Thermostat Wiring 123

Delco-Buick System 324

Delco-Cadlllac 1912 System 437

Delco-Cadillac 1913 System 439

1914 Delco-Cadillac System 313

1914 Delco-Olds System (Insert A ) between 302-303

1916 Delco-Cadillac System 333

Delco-Cole 1915 Eight Cylinder System 441

Delco Combination Switch Circuits 98

1916 Delco-Hudson System (Non-Technical) 330

1916 Delco-Hudson System (Technical) 331

Delco Ignition System, Elementary 93

Delco-Oakland System (Non-Technical) 434

Beady Reference to all Wiring Diagrams

PAGE

Bemy-lTational Two-Annature System 402

Bemy-Beo System {Insert) between 402-403

Bemy Two Spark Magneto 222

Bemy Type B. L. Magneto System 215

Simms-Duplez Ignition System 217

Simms-HufF-Mazwell System 387

Simms-Hnff System (Simplified) 384

Simple Battery Ignition System 68

Six Cylinder Battery-Coil-Distribntor System 116

Six Cylinder Triple System 131

Splitdorf Transformer-Coil System 213

Technical Diagram, Gray & Davis Two-Unit 351

Technical Diagram, Gray & Davis Two-Wire System 354

Testing Delco Armature Windings 449

Transformer Coil-Magneto System 192

Two Spark Magneto Ignition 221

XT. S. Xfc-Jeffery System 420

TJnisparker System 84

Use of Lamp Bank Besistance 154

Vulcan Electric Gearshift Circuits 478

WestinghQUse Ignition Generator Circuits 407

Westinghouse Ignition Unit System 101

Westinghouse Lighting System 410

Westinghouse-Pierce-Arrow System 411

Westinghouse Starting Motor Circuits 408

Wiring Qf Lamp and Test Points 445

ADDED TO 1917 EDITION

Circuits 499

Wacpier-Studebaker Circuits 500

18 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

it is capable of doing work. The passage of electricity through
any piece of apparatus is termed a current. If the flowing of the
electrical charges is continuous it is called a direct current. If the
charges are not continuous but flow always in the same direction
it is termed a ** pulsating'' current. If an electrical charge flowing
in one direction is followed by another charge flowing in the op-
posite direction, an ** alternating" current is produced.

It will be evident that to obtain a regular flow a constant
supply of electricity, such as afforded by some electrical generator
is required. The simplest analogy to permit the reader to under-
stand the passage of a current is the flow of a stream of water.
A number of comparisons can be made between water and the
electric current which tend to simplify the explanation, though it
is understood that there can be little in common between such a
tangible fluid as water is and electricity which is intangible and
only considered a fluid for convenience. To form some conception
of this force, it is well to consider that we are able to place various
bodies in different electrical relations. A stick of sealing wax or
a hard rubber comb, rubbed on a coat sleeve, will attract bits of
paper, feathers and other light objects. The sealing wax or rubber
is said to be charged with electricity which has been produced by
friction against the coat sleeve. Any body charged with electricity
may be considered one whose surface is supplied with either an over-
charge or undercharge of electricity. The overcharged body al-
ways tends to discharge to the undercharged body in order to
equalize a difference in pressure existing between them. An elec-
trical machine capable of producing current may distribute this
current as desired, providing the current is sufficiently strong to
overcome the resistance to its motion of the parts comprising the
external circuit.

Why Current Flows. — The action of an electrical machine in
regulating the distribution of electricity may be considered to be
the same as that of a pump which takes water from one tank and
supplies it to another at a higher level. If for these reservoirs we
consider bodies insulated from each other, we can, with an electri-
cal generator take electricity from one that has been overcharged
and supply it to another which is undercharged. If we had two

Starting^ Lighting and Ignition Systems

emptied quicker but the water would have a greater head or pres-
sure. The same condition exists on electrified bodies as the ^eater
the diflference of potential or level between them the more rapid
the flow and the greater the pressure of the current.

The levels of liquids in the tanks instead of being compared to
each other might be referred to that of an ocean of constant level.
Water might be pumped into the ocean from one or from the ocean
to one or both so as to affect the level of water in the tanks with
respect to the larger quantity in the ocean of constant height.
Electricity can be considered in the same manner. It can be taken

Tank ni ted

Tank Empty

J^d

J Wire

Eleetrio
Motor

Wire

Pipe

Dry Ceil

Fig. 1. — ^Diagrams Illustrating How Current Pressure Causes Electricity
to Flow by Comparing It to a Flow of Water ftom One Tank to
Another.

from an ocean of electricity, which may be represented by the
electrical charge present at all points of the earth or the earth can
be used, as it invariably is, as a receptacle for the charges obtained
from electrical producers.

In Fig. 1 is shown two tanks, A and B, connected by a pipe.
Let tank A, which is filled with water, represent the positive ele-
ment K of the cell P, and the empty tank B the negative element
L. Let pipe E connecting the two tanks represent wires J con-
necting the two elements: It is evident that water will flow through
the pipe from the full tank to the empty tank until both contain
the same quantity and the pressures are equal. Likewise in the
battery cell electricity will flow through the wire from the positive

22 Starting J Lighting and Ignition Systems

trical conductors, steel or iron is next in order, while some alloys,
such as German silver, offer considerable resistance to the flow oi
current.

Materials such as wood, glass, rubber, etc., and air, conduct
electricity so badly as to be termed insulators. What would nor-
mally be an insulator to a current of low potential may be rup-
tured by a current of higher potential or pressure which can break
down the resistance. From the foregoing it will be evident that a
current is produced by the passage of electricity from one body
to another and that current can only flow through certain ma-
terials and that some substances act as a barrier to the current
flow just as a valve stops the flow of water. With a valve in thp
water pipe, providing that the parts were sufficiently strong, clos-
ing the valve breaks the continuity of the pipe and stops the flow
of water. The same is true of electricity, it must have a complete
circuit or the currents cannot pass. An electrical circuit is said
to be an open circuit when the current cannot flow and a closed
circuit, if there is a continuous path for the electricity.

A closed circuit therefore is one made up entirely of apparatus
and wires capable of conducting electricity, including some form
of generator of electrical energy which acts as a pump to produce
a flow. The flow of current is from the electrical generator, through
wires to the piece of apparatus to be operated and from that piece
of apparatus back again to its source. If we connect the terminals
of the battery through the wire to the bell, after energizing the bell
magnets the electricity does work by ringing the bell. It flows
from the positive or carbon terminal of the battery through the
wire to the bell and after energizing the bell magnets, it returns
through another conductor to the zinc or negative terminal of the
battery. Inside of the cells, the flow is from the negative member
to the positive member. Any closed circuit may be made an open
circuit by including an insulating body which resists current flow.
This body is always of such a form that it can be temporarily
bridged over by a conductor when it is desired that the current
pass through the circuit. All electrical circuits must comprise a
source of current, wires to carry it, a switch to interrupt it and
apparatus to be actuated by it.

How Current is Produced

Current Production by Chemical Action. — The simplest method
of current generation is by various forms of chemical current pro-
ducers which may be either primary or secondary in character. A
simple form of cell is shown in section at Fig. 3, A, and as the
action of all devices of this character is based on the same principles
it will be well to consider the method of producing electricity by
the chemical action of a fluid upon a metal. The simple cell shown

Pressure
Gauge

Valve

The Drop In Pressure between Pump
and Motor Is due to Valve being only
opened a small Amount,

Pressure
Gauge

Rheostat

110 Volts

The Drop in Pressure between Generator
and Motor is due to the Resistance of
Rheostat being cut in.

Volts

Fig. 2. — ^Diagrams Outlining How* Current Voltage is Reduced by In-
creasing Besistance in Circuit. A — Water Flow Reduced by Shut-off
Valve. B — ^Electric Flow Reduced by Rheostat^ an Equivalent of tbe
Valve in tbe Water System.

consists of a container which is filled with an electrolyte which
may be either an alkali or acid solution. Immersed in the liquid
are two plates of metal, one being of copper, the other zinc. A
vire is attached to each plate by means of suitable screw terminals.
tf the ends of the plates which are not immersed in the solution
are joined together a chemical action will take place between the
electrolyte and the zinc plate ; in fact, any form of cell consists of
dissimilar elements which are capable of conducting electricity im-

Starting, lAghting and Ignition Systems

mersed in a liquid which will act on one of them more than the
other. The chemical action of electrolyte on the zinc liberates gas
bubbles which are charged with electricity and which deposit them-
selves on the copper plate. The copper element serves merely as a
collecting member and is termed the ' ' positive ' ' plate, while the zinc
which is acted upon by the solution is termed the "negative" -mem-
ber. The flow of current is from the zinc to the copper plate through

Fig. 3. — simple Frlmar? Cell Used to Produce Electric Cuirsnt. A —
Form to Show Principle of Current Production by Chemical Actton.
B — Dry Cell, the Type Suitable for AaUmoblle Service.

the electrolyte and it is returned from the copper plate to the zinc
element by the wiring which comprises the external circuit.

While in the cell shown zinc and copper are used, any other com-
bination of metals between which there exists a difference in elec-
trical condition when one of them is acted upon by a salt or acid
may be employed. Any salt or acid solution will act as an elec-
trolyte if it will combine chemically with^one of the elements and
if it does not at the same time offer too great a resistance to the
passage of the electric current. The current strength will vary
with the nature of the elements used, and will have a higher value

Action of Chemical Current Producer 25

when the chemical action is more pronounced between the negative
member and the electrolyte.

As the vibrations which obtain when the automobile is driven
over highways makes it. difficult to use cells in which there is a
surplus of liquid, a form of cell has been devised in which the
liquid electrolyte is replaced by a solid substance which cannot
splash out of the container even if the cell is not carefully sealed.
A current producer of this nature is depicted in sjpction at Fig.
3, B. This is known as a dry cell and consists of a zinc can in the
center of which a carbon rod is placed. The electrolyte is held
close to the zinc or negative member by an absorbent lining of
blotting paper, and the carbon rod is surrounded by some de-
polarizing material. The top of the cell is sealed with pitch to
prevent loss of depolarizer.

' The depolarizer is needed that the cell may continue to generate
current. When the circuit of a simple cell is completed the current
generation is brisker than after the cell has been producing elec-
tricity for a time. While the cell has been in action the positive
element becomes covered with bubbles of hydrogen gas, which is
a poor conductor of electricity and tends to decrease the current
output of the cell. To prevent these bubbles from interfering with
current generation some means must be provided for disposing of
the gas. In dry cells the hydrogen gas that causes polarization
is combined with oxygen gas evolved by the depolarizing medium
and the combination of these two gases produces water which does
not interfere with the action of the cell. Carbon is used in a dry
cell instead of copper because it is a cheaper material and the
electrolyte is a mixture of salammoniac and chloride of zinc which
is held in intimate contact with the zinc shell which forms the
negative element by the blotting paper lining.

Wiring Dry Cells. — When dry cells are used for ignition there
are two practical methods of connecting these up. At least four
dry cells are necessary to secure satisfactory ignition and much
more energetic explosions will be obtained if five or six are used.
The common method is to join the cells together in series as shown
at Pig. 4, A. When connecting in this manner the carbon terminal
of one battery is always coupled to the zinc binding post of its

26 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

Cavers chafed -Zinc sheila In contact ^oose TermPiala

Terminals In contact

Frayed wire

Fig. 4. — ^Methods of Connecting Dry Cells and Precautions to be Observed

When Wiring.

neighbor. Connection would be made from the carbon of the first
cell to the zinc of the second, from the carbon of the second to
the zinc of the third, and from the carbon of the third to the
zinc of the fourth, this leaving the zinc terminal on the first cell
and the carbon terminal on the fourth cell free to be joined to
the external circuit. When dry cells are connected in series the

Wiring Dry Cell Battery 27

voltage is augmented, that of one cell being multiplied by the
number so joined. The amperage remains the same as that of
one cell. If a dry cell has a potential ot 1%. volts, a battery com-
posed of four cells would show 5 volts. When dry batteries are
used for lighting purposes or for igniting multiple cylinder en-
gines, in order to obtain better results, they are connected in
series multiple, as shown at B. Three sets of cells joined in series
are placed side by side with the free carbons at one end in line
and the zincs at the other also in line. The three carbons are
then joined together by one wire, the three zinc terminals by an-
other. "When joined in this manner the battery has a voltage equal
to that of four cells and an amperage equal to that of three cells.
If a series connected battery as at A indicated 5 volts and 20
amperes, the series multiple connection at B will indicate 5 volts
and 60 amperes. When cells are joined in multiple the drain
on any one cell is reduced and it is not so likely to become ex-
hausted as when four are used in series. The points to be watched
out for when installing dry batteries are clearly outlined at the
bottom of Fig. 4. It will be seen that it is not desirable for termi-
nals to come in contact with each other or with the sides of the
box or is it conducive to good ignition to have the zinc shells in
contact. A loose terminal on any one of the batteries will re-
sult in irregular ignition while a broken wire will interrupt it
altogether. If the insulation is frayed where a wire passes through
a hole in a metal battery box trouble may be experienced due to
short circuiting of the current between the bare wire and the
steel box, which may be grounded.

One of the disadvantages of primary cells, as those types which
utilize zinc as a negative element are called, is that the chemical
action produces deterioration and waste of material by oxidization.
Dry cells are usually proportioned so that the electrolyte and de-
polarizing materials become weaker as the zinc is used and when a
dry cell is exhausted it is not profitable to attempt to recharge it
because new ones can be obtained at a lower cost than the expense
of renewing the worn elements would be.

The number of dry cells necessary will vary with the system of
ignition employed and the size of the motor. While two or three

28 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

cells will ignite small engines such as used in motorcycles, five or
six will be needed on automobile engines employing high-tension
ignition. When the make-and-break system, or low-tension method,
is used eight or ten cells are necessary. If the engine is a multiple
cylinder one, it will draw more current than a single cylinder type
because of the greater frequency of sparks. On four-cylinder cars
dry cells should be joined in multiple series, which is the most
economical arrangement. Cells used in multiple connection are
more enduring than if the same number were used independently in
single-series connection. A disadvantage of a dry cell battery is
that it is suited only for intermittent service and it will soon be-
come exhausted if used where the current demands are severe. For
this reason most automobiles in which batteries are used for igni-
tion employ storage or secondary batteries to furnish the current
regularly used and a set of dry cells is provided for use only in
cases of emergency when the storage battery becomes exhausted.

Principles of Storage Battery Construction. — Some voltaic
couples are reversible, i. e., they may be recharged when they have
become exhausted by passing a current of electricity through them
in a direction opposite to that in which the current flows on dis-
charge.' Such batteries are known as '* accumulators" or ''storage
batteries." A storage battery belies its name as it does not store
current and its action is somewhat similar to that of the simpler
chemical cell previously described. In its simplest form a storage
cell would consist of two elements and an electrolyte, as outlined
at Fig. 5, A. The storage battery differs from the primary cell
in that the elements are composed of the same metal before charg-
ing takes place, usually lead instead of being zinc or carbon. One
of the plates is termed the ''positive" and may be distinguished
from the other because it is brown, or chocolate in color after
charging, while the negative plate is usually a light gray of leaden
color. The active material of a charged storage battery is not
metallic lead but oxides of that material.

The simple form shown at A consists of two plates of lead
which are rolled together separated by insulating bands of rubber
at the top and bottom to keep them from touching. This roll is
immersed in an electrolyte composed of a weak solution of sul-

Principles of Storage Battery Action 29

phurie acid in water. Before such a cell can be used it must be
charged, which consists of passing a current of electricity throagh
it until the lead plates have changed their nature. After the
charging process is complete the lead plates have become so
changed in nature that they may be considered as different sub-
stances and a chemical action results between the negative plate
and the electrolyte and produces current just as in the simple cell

Fig. 5. — Types of Accunmlatora or Stor&ge Batteries. A — Simple Form
of Oell. B — ^Battery Composed of Tliree Cells Sucb as ComraoDl;
Used for Ignition Purposes,

shown at Pig. 3, A, When the ceU is exhausted the plates return
to their metallic condition and are practically the same, and as
there is but little difference in electrical condition existing be-
tween them, they do not deliver any current until electricity has
been passed through the cell so as to change the lead plates to
oxides of lead instead of metallic lead.

When storage cells are to be used in automobile work they are
combined in a single containing member, as shown at Fig. 5, B,

30 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

which is a part sectional view of a Geiszler storage battery. The
main containing member, a jar of hard rubber, is divided into
three parts. Each of these compartments serves to hold the ele-
ments comprising one cell. The positive and negative plates are
spaced apart by wood and hard rubber separators which prevent
short circuiting between the plates. After the elements have been
put in place in the compartments forming the individual cells of
the battery, the top of the jar is sealed by pouring a compound
of pitch and rosin, or asphaltum, over plates of hard rubber, which
keeps the sealing material from running into the cells and on the
plates. Vents are provided over each cell through which gases
produced by charging or discharging are allowed to escape. These
are ^o formed that while free passage of gas is provided for, it is
not possible for the electrolyte to splash out when the vehicle is
in motion.

It will be evident that this method of sealing would not be
practical on a cell where the members attacked by the acid had to
be replaced from time to time, but in a storage battery only the
electrolyte need be renewed. When the plates are discharged they
are regenerated by passing a current of electricity through them.
New electrolyte or distilled water can be easily inserted through
holes in which the vents are screwed. The cells of which a storage
battery is composed are joined together at the factory with bars of
lead which are burned in place and only two free terminals are
provided by which the battery is coupled to the outer circuit.

The capacity of a storage battery depends upon the size and
the number of plates per cell, while the potential or voltage is
determined by the number of cells joined in series to form the
battery. Each cell has a difference of potential of two and two
tenths volts when fully charged, therefore a two-cell battery will
deliver a current of four and four tenths volts and a three-cell
type, as shown in part section at Fig. 6, will give about six and
six tenths volts between the terminals. In the form shown each
cell is composed of a number of plates and their separators. One
group of the plates is positive, the remaining negative members.
The size of storage battery to be used depends upon the number
qt cylinders of the engine and also if battery is to be used for

Storage Battefy Construction 31

startiog and lighting purposes as well as ignition. Four-eylinder
motors usually take s six-volt, sixty-ampere-hour battery, but it
is desirable to supply a six-volt battery having eighty-ampere-hour
capacity for six-cylinder motors for ignition only. For lighting
or starting 100 ampere hour batteries are needed.

When chemical current producers are depended upon to supply
the electricity used for ignition, two distinct sets are provided,

EiiimnsloD Chamber to take
care of Chansea la Volnma
of S^utlon durlDB Chusa

Fig. & — Special Storage Battery Desl^d to Funilsli Ugbtlngj and
Starting Cnirent,

one for regular service and the other for emergency use in event
of failure of that which is depended upon regularly. The com-
mon practice is to provide an accumulator or storage battery for
normal use and a set of dry cells, which are cheaper in first cost
and which do not deteriorate if not used for some time, for emer-
gency service. When two sources of current are thus provided, a
switch is included in the circuit so that either set may be used
at will. The zinc terminal of the dry battery and the negative
terminal of the storage battery are joined together by a suitable

82 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

conductor and are grounded by running the wire attached to
them to some metal part of the chassis such as the crank case or
frame side member. The remaining terminals, which are the
positive of the storage battery and the carbon of the dry cell, are
coupled to distinct terminals on the switch block.

The fact that any battery cannot maintain a constant supply
of electricity has militated against their use to a certain extent
knd the modern motorist demands some form of mechanical gener-
ator driven from the power plant, which will deliver an unfailing
supply of electricity and keep the battery charged. The strength
of batteries is reduced according to the amount of service they
give. The more they are used the weaker they become. The
modern multiple cylinder engines are especially severe in their
requirements upon the current producer and the rapid sequence
of explosions in the average six- or eight-cylinder motor produce
practically a steady drain upon the battery. "When dry cells are
used their discharge rate is very low and as they are designed
only for intermittent work, when the conditions are such that a
constant flow of current is required, they are unsuitable and will
soon deteriorate. A more comprehensive discussion on the care,
repair and charging of storage batteries will be found in the
following chapter.

Fundamentals of Magnetism Outlined. — To properly under-
stand the phenomena • and forces involved in the generation of
electrical energy by mechanical means it is necessary to become
familiar with some of the elementary principles of magnetism
and its relation to electricity. The following matter can be read
with profit by those who are not familiar with the subject. Most
persons know that magnetism exists in certain substances, but many
are not able to grasp the terms used in describing the operation
of various electrical devices because of not possessing a knowledge
of the basic facts upon which the action of such apparatus is based.

Magnetism is a property possessed by certain substances and is
manifested by the ability to attract and repel otter materials sus-
ceptible to its effects. When this phenomena is manifested by a
conductor or wire through which a current of electricity is flowing
it is termed ''electro-magnetism.'' Magnetism and electricity are

Fundamentals of Magnetism 88

closely related, each being capable of producing the other. Prac-
tically all of the phenomena manifested by materials which possess
magnetic qualities naturally can be easily reproduced by passing a
current of electricity through a body which, when not under elec-
trical influence, is not a magnetic substance. Only certain sub-
stances show magnetic properties, these being iron, nickel, cobalt
and their alloys.

The earliest known substance possessing magnetic properties
was a stone first found in Asia Minor. It was called the lodestone
or leading stone, because of its tendency, if arranged so it could
1)6 moved freely, of pointing one particular portion toward the
north. The compass of the ancient Chinese mariners was a piece
of this material, now known to be iron ore, suspended by a light
thread or floated on a cork in some liquid so one end would point
toward the north magnetic pole of the earth. The reason that
this stone was magnetic was hard to define for a time, until it was
learned that the earth was one huge magnet and that the iron ore,
being particularly susceptible, absorbed and retained some of this
magnetism.

Most of us are familiar with some of the properties of the mag-
net because of the extensive sale and use of small horseshoe mag-
nets as toys. As they only cost a few pennies everyone has owned
one at some time or other and has experimented with various ma-
terials to see if they would be attracted. Small pieces of iron or
steel were quickly attracted to the magnet and adhered to the pole
pieces when brought within the zone of magnetic influence. It was
soon learned that brass, copper, tin or zinc were not affected by the
magnet. A simple experiment that serves to illustrate magnetic
attraction of several substances is shown at A, Fig. 7. In this,
several balls are hung from a standard or support, one of these
being of iron or steel, the other two of any other of the common
materials or metals. If a magnet is brought close to the group of
balls, only one will be attracted toward it, while the others will
remain indifferent to the magnetic force. Experimenters soon
learned that of the common metals only iron or steel were magnetic.

If the ordinary bar or horseshoe magnet be carefully examined,
one end will be found to be marked N. This indicates the north

34 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

Inn Attracted by UagiM,

Formt of Magnets.

Attractim Brtaeen llaBitta,

ritlda of Magnetic Inflmnea.

Hannliat Magnst,

Tig, 7. — Stoiia Simple Ezperlmenta to Demonstrate Tarions magnetic
Pbenomena and to Oleul? OutUne Effect* of Magnotism and romu
of Magnets.

36 Starting^ Lighting and Ignition Systems

The form of magnet used will materially affect the size and area
of the magnetic field. It will be noted that the field will be con-
centrated to a greater extent with the horseshoe form because of
the proximity of the poles. It should be understood that these
lines have no actual existence, but are imaginary and assumed to
exist only to show the way the magnetic field is distributed. The
magnetic influence is always greater at the poles than at the center,
and that is why a horseshoe or U-form magnet is used in practi-
cally all magnetos or dynamos. This greater attraction at the poles
can be clearly demonstrated by sprinkling iron filings on bar and
U magnets, as outlined at E, Fig. 7. A large mass gathers at the
pole pieces, gradually tapering down toward the point where the
attraction is least.

From the diagrams it will be seen that the flow of magnetism is
from one pole to the other by means of curved paths between them.
This circuit is completed by the magnetism flowing from one pole
to the other through the magnet, and as this flow is continued as
long as the body remains magnetic it constitutes a magnetic cir-
cuit. If this flow were temporarily interrupted by means of a
conductor of electricity moving through the field there would be
a current of electricity induced in the conductor every time it cut
the lines of force. There are three kinds of magnetic circuits. A
non-magnetic circuit is one in which the magnetic influence com-
pletes its circuit through some substance not susceptible to the
force. A closed magnetic circuit is one in which the influence
completes its circuit through some magnetic material which bridges
the gap between the poles. A compound circuit is that in which
the magnetic influence passes through magnetic substances and
non-magnetic substances in order to complete its circuit.

How Iron and Steel Bars are Made Magnetic. — Magnetism
may be produced in two ways, by contact or induction. If a piece
of steel is rubbed on a magnet it will be found a magnet when
removed, having a north and south pole and all of the properties
found in the energizing magnet. This is magnetizing by contact.
A piece of steel will retain the magnetism imparted to it for a
considerable length of time, and the influence that remains is
known as residual magnetism. This property may be increased by

Electricity and Magnetism Related 37

alloying the steel with tungsten and hardening it before it is mag-
netized. Any material that will retain its magnetic influence after
removal from the source of magnetism is known as a permanent
magnet. If a piece of iron or steel is brought into the magnetic
field of a powerful magnet it becomes a magnet without actual
contact with the energizer. This is magnetizing by magnetic in-
duction. If a powerful electric current flows through an insulated
conductor wound around a piece of iron or steel it wall make a
magnet of it. This is magnetizing by electro-magnetic induction.
A magnet made in this manner is termed an electro-magnet and
usually the metal is of such a nature that it will not retain its
magnetism when the current ceases to flow around it. Steel is
used in all cases where permanent magnets are required, while soft
iron is employed in all cases where an intermittent magnetic action
is desired. Magneto field magnets are always made of steel alloy,
so treated that it will retain its magnetism for lengthy periods.

Electricity and Magnetism Closely Related. — There are many
points in which magnetism and electricity are alike. For instance,
air is a medium that offers considerable resistance to the passage
of both magnetic influence and electric energy, although it offers
more resistance to the passage of the latter. Minerals like iron or
steel are very easily influenced by magnetism and easily penetrated
by it. When one of these is present in the magnetic circuit the
magnetism will flow through the metal. Any metal is a good con-
ductor for 'the passage of the electric current, but few metals are
good conductors of magnetic energy. A body of the proper metal
will become a magnet due to induction if placed in the magnetic
field, having a south pole where the lines of force enter it and a
north pole where they pass out.

"We have seen that a magnet is constantly surrounded by a mag-
netic field and that an electrical conductor when carrying a cur-
rent is also surrounded by a field of magnetic influence. Now if
the conductor carrying a current of electricity will induce mag-
netism in a bar of iron or steel, by a reversal of this process, a
magnetized iron or steel bar will produce a current of electricity
in a conductor. It is upon this principle that the modem dynamo
or magneto is constructed. If an electro-motive force is induced

88 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

in a conductor by moving it across a field of magnetic influence,
or by passing a magnetic field near a conductor, electricity is said
to be generated by magneto-electric induction. All mechanical
generators of the electric current using permanent steel magnets
to produce a field of magnetic influence are of this type.

Basic Principles of Magneto Action Outlined. — The accom-
panying diagram, Fig. 8, will show these principles very clearly.
As stated earlier in this chapter, if the lines of force in the magnetic
field are cut by a suitable conductor an electrical impulse ^11 be
produced in that conductor. In this simple machine the lines of
force exist between the poles of a horseshoe magnet. The con-
ductor, which in this case is a loop of copper wire, is mounted upon
a spindle in order that it may be rotated in the magnetic field to
cut the lines of magnetic influence present between the pole pieces.
Both of the ends of this loop are connected, one with the insulated
drum shown upon the shaft, the other to the shaft. Two metal
brushes are employed to collect the current and cause it to flow
through the external circuit. It can be seen that when the shaft
is turned in the direction of the arrow the loop will cut through
the lines of magnetic influence and a current will be generated
therein.

The pressure of the current and the amount produced vary in
accordance to the rapidity with which the lines of magnetic in-
fluence are cut. The armature of a practical magneto, therefore,
differs materially with that shown in the diagram. A -large num-
ber of loops of wire would be mounted upon this shaft in order
that the lines of magnetic influence would be cut a greater numbei
of times in a given period and a core of iron used as a backing f oi
the wire. This would give a more rapid alternating current and a
higher electro-motive force than would.be the case with a smallei
number of loops of wire.

The illustrations at Fig. 9 show a conventional double wind
ing armature and field magnets of a practical magneto in part sec
tion and will serve to more fully emphasize the points previously
made. If the armature or spindle were removed from between th(
pole pieces there would exist a field of magnetic influence as showi
at Fig. 7, but the introduction of this component provides a con

Magneto Action

duetor (the iron core) for the magnetic energy, regardless of its
position, though the facility with which the influence will be trans-
mitted depends entirely upon the position of the core. As shown at

Field
Magnet

Mb
Pieces

iM)

Insulated Ring
Loop of Wire
Spindle

Brushes

Pig. 8. — Elementary Form of Magneto Having Principal Farts Simplified
to Make Method of Current Generation Clearer.

A, th« magnetic flow is through the main body in a straight line,
while at B, which position the armature has attained after one-
eighth revolution, or 45 degrees travel in the direction of the arrow,
the magnetism must pass through in the manner indicated. At
C, which position is attained every half revolution, the magnetic

40 Starting^ Lighting and Ignition Systems

energy abandons the longer path through the body of the core for
the shorter passage offered by the side pieces, and the field thrown
out by the cross bar disappears. On further rotation of the arma-
ture, as at D, the body of the core again becomes energized as the
magnetic influence resumes its flow through it. These changes in
the strength of the magnetic field when distorted by the armature
core, as well as the intensity of the energy existing in the field,
affect the windings and the electrical energy induced therein corre-
sponds in strength to the rapidity with which these changes in mag-
netic flow occur. The most pronounced changes in the strength of
the field will occur as the armature passes from position B. to D,
because the magnetic field existing around the core will be de-
stroyed and again reestablished.

During the most of the armature rotation the changes in
strength will be slight and the currents induced in the wire corre-
spondingly small ; but at the instant the core becomes remagnetized,
as the armature leaves position C, the current produced will be at
its maximum, and it is necessary to so time the rotation of the
armature th9,t at this instant one of the cylinders is in condition
to be fired. It is imperative that the armature be driven in such
relation to the crankshaft that each production of maximum cur-
rent coincides with the ignition point, this condition existing twice
during each revolution of the armature, or at every 180 degrees
travel. Each position shown corresponds to 45 degrees travel of
the armature, or one-eighth of a turn, and it takes just one-half
revolution to change the position from A to that shown at D. (See
Fig. 10 also.)

Essential Parts of a Magneto and their Functions. — The mag-
nets which produce the influence that in turn induces the electrical
energy in the winding or loops of wire on the armature, and which
may have any even number of opposed poles, are called field mag-
nets. The loops of wire which are mounted upon a suitable drum
and rotate in the field of magnetic influence in order to cut the
lines of force is called an armature winding, while the core is the
metal portion. The entire assembly is called the armature. The
exposed ends of the magnets are called pole pieces and the arrange-
ment used to collect the current is either a commutator or a col-

Magneto Action

pig. 9. — Showing How Strengtli of Magnetic Influence and of ttie Oui-
Tent Induced in tlie Windings of Magneto Aimatuie Vary with the
Bapldlty of Changes of Direction In Flow.

Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

46 Starting, Lighting ana Igmtion Systems

of many turns of finer wire. The arrangement of these windings
can be readily ascertained by reference to the diagram B, Fig, 12,
which shows the principle of operation very clearly. One end of
the primary winding (coarse wire) is coupled or grounded to the
armature core, and the other passes to the insulated part of the
interrupter. While in some forms the interrupter or contact
breaker mechanism does not revolve, the desired motion being im-
parted to the contact lever to separate the points by a revolving

Tig. 12. — DiBgTamH Explaining Action of Low Tension or TranBloinier
OoU Magneto Syatera at A and Trne High Tension Magneto System
at B.

earn, in this the cam or tripping mechanism is stationary and the
contact breaker revolves. This arrangement makes it possible to
■conduct the current from the revolving primary coil to the inter-

48 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

exist. When the current reaches its maximum value, because of
the armature being in the best position, the cam operates the in-
terrupter and the points are separated, breaking the short circuit
which has existed in the primary winding.

The secondary circuit has been open while the distributor arm
has moved from one contact to another and there has been no flow
of energy through this winding. While the electrical pressure will
rise in this, even if the distributor arm contacted with one of the
segments, there would be no spark at the plug until the contact
points separated, because the current in the secondary winding
would not be of sufficient strength. When the interrupter oper-
ates, however, the maximum primary current will be diverted from
its short circuit and can flow to the ground only through the sec-
ondary winding and spark-plug circuit. The high pressure now
existing in the secondary winding will be greatly increased by the
sudden flow of primary current, and energy of high enough poten-
tial to successfully bridge the gap at the plug is thereby produced
in the winding.

Dynamo Electric Machines. — Two distinct types of mechanical
generators are in common use, and while their principles of action
are practically the same, they differ somewhat in construction and
application. The forms first used to succeed the battery were
modifications of the larger dynamo electric machines used for de-
livering current for power and lighting. Later developments re-
sulted in the simplification of the dynamo, by which it was made
lighter and more efficient, and the modern magneto igniter is the
form usually furnished on conventional power plants. A dynamo
uses electro-magnets to produce a magnetic field for the armature
to revolve in, and is necessarily somewhat heavier and larger than
a magneto of equal capacity because the field in the latter instru-
ment is produced by permanent magnets. An important advantage
in using the magneto form of construction is that the weight of the
windings is saved because the permanent magnets retain their
magnetism and do not require the continual energizing that an
electro-magnet demands.

The dynamo construction is superior where a continual drain is
made upon the apparatus, because if a magneto is used continu-

60 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

of simple design is shown at Fig. 14. All parts are clearly
indicated and there should be no difficulty in understanding the
principles of operation. The three main portions of the ds^iamo
are the field magnets, which produce the magnetic field, the arma-
ture, which carries the coils of wire and which is mounted between
the extremities or pole pieces of the magnet, and the brushes, which
bear against segments of a collecting device known as a commu-
tator serving to convey the current to terminals which are joined
to the outer circuit. In the form shown the field magnets are

Flfr U. — Oiajr & Davis Ooveraed Dynamo, an Appliance for Piodndng
Electricity bjr Uechanical Means.

composed of a number of iron stampings which are surrounded
by a coil of wire, and two such magnets are provided, one above,
the other below, the armature. The armature is supported on a
shaft mounted in ball bearings so that it will turn with minimum
friction. The whole mechanism is protected by an outer casing.

The device shown is a constant speed dynamo, i.e., it should be
operated at a certain speed to obtain the best results. If run faster
than the speed for which it is designed the excess current gener-
ated is liable to burn out the windings of the field magnet. For this
reason a governor of the fly ball type is interposed between th©

Dynamo Generator Action 51

dynamo armature and the driving shaft coupled to the source <rf
power. At all normal speeds the tension of the governor spring
Iceeps the two plates of the clutch in contact and the armature is
turned at the same speed as the driving shaft.

Should the driving shaft speed exceed a certain predetermS.rWj
limit the governor weights will fly out by centrifugal force and the

Fig. Ifi. — How Oray b Davis Oenerator is Driven by Silent Oliain Oon-
nection witli Guglne Cranksbaft.

governor spring will be compressed so the driving and driven plates
of the clutch are separated and the driving shaft revolves inde-
pendently of the armature. As soon as the armature speed becomes
reduced sufficiently to allow the governor spring to overcome the
centrifugal force and draw back the governor weights, the clutch

52 Starting, Lighting and Igmtion Systems

plates are again brought into contact and the armature is again
jolaed to the driving shaft.

A current of air is kept circulating through the casing by
means of the fan action of the reenforcing webs of the clutch plate,
the ifcjeet being to absorb any heat which may be produced while

Tig. IS. — Diatliictive Toim of Oonent Fiodncei Used on Ford Oars is
Incorporated in the Power Plant FlywliMl.

the dynamo is in action. An appliance of this nature may be
driven from the engine by belt, chain, or gear connection (Pig.
15) . It will deliver low voltage current which must be transformed
by means of an inducetion coil to current of higher value in order
that it may be successfully utilized to produce the spark in the
combustion chambers of the engine.

Flywheel Magneto Construction 53

A very ingenious application of the dynamo is shown at Figs.
16 and 17. The electrie generator is built in such a manner that
it forms an integral part of the power plant. The magneto field
is produced by a series of revolving magnets which are joined to
and turn with the fly wheel of the motor. The armature coils are
carried by a fixed plate which is attached to the engine base. This
apparatus is really a magneto having a revolving field and a fixed
armature, and as the magnets are driven from the fiy wheel there
is no driving connection to get out of order and cause trouble.

r^g. 17. — The Ford Magneto Is Integxal wlUt Engine Bue and Revolving
Magnets are Attaclied to Flywlieel Permitting Dliect Drive from
CTankaliaf t without Oears.

Aa the coils in which the current is generated are stationary, no
commutator or brushes are needed to collect the current because
the electricity may be easily taken from the fixed eoila by direct
connection. It has been advanced that this form of magneto is
not as efficient as the conventional patterns, because more metal
and wire are needed to produce the current required. As the
magnets which form the heavier portion of the apparatus are
joined to the fly wheel, which can be correspondingly lighter, this
disadvantage is not one that can be considered seriously because
the magnet weight is added to that of the motor fly wheel, the

54 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

combined weight of the two being that of an ordinary balance
member used on any other engine of equal power.

Methods of Winding Djmajnos. — The reader not versed in elec-
trical science is apt to be puzzled by the designation of the various
windings used on dynamos and motors. The armature windings
and field coils may be connected together in a number of ways, as
outlined at Pig. 18. The simple machine shown at A uses a per-
manent magnet to produce the field and therefore has only one set
of windings to be considered/ i. e., those on the armature. When
the field magnet is an electro magnet another set of windings must
be considered, i. e., those of the field magnet. When the current
generated in the armature musl first pass through the field wind-
ings before it reaches the external circuit the machine is said to be
a series wound machine as shown at B because the armature and
field windings are joined together in series. If only a portion of
the current generated by the armature is directed to the field mag-
net windings the machine is said to be shunt wound, as shown at
C. A compound wound dynamo is shown at D. In this two sets of
field windings are used, one connected in shunt, the other coils in
series. The shunt winding provides an initial excitation sufficient
to generate full voltage at no load. The series coils provide
an excitation that increases as the load increases and thereby
strengthen the field so as to prevent the falling off in voltage that
would otherwise occur. If the series coils are sufficiently powerful
to make the voltage rise as the load increases the machine is said
to be over-compounded.

The compound wound dynamo is the type used almost univer-
sally for direct current production. In stationary applications,
compound wound motors are used where the load varies consider-
ably under which conditions the extreme speed variation of series
motors would be objectionable and where increased torque or turn-
ing power would be needed that shunt motors could not give. A
compound wound dynamo is, to a certain extent, self -regulating, as
the two coils counteract each other and bring about a more regular
action for varying currents than that of the ordinary shunt or series
wound dynamo. The extent of the regulation possible depends
upon the proportions of the different windings though a compound

Methods of Winding Dynamos

^Permanent
Field Magnet

Pole
Piece

External
Circuit

^Armature
Comutator

^i.M.>»»»a>__»a»J

i^a

Main

Circuit

"♦«>

3
CO

Lamps

Field Magnet

Armature

Comutator

Field
Circuit

J{aJnJ)lrcuJt^^

^^^

Lamps

Fig. 18. — ^Diagram Showing Methods of Winding Dynamo. A — Simple
Magneto Generator. B — Series Wound Machine. C — Shunt Wound
Machine. D — Compound Typo.

' 56 Starting, Ldghting and Ignition Systems

"wound machine can be self -regulating at only one particular rota-
tive speed. In a series wound dynamo short circuiting or lowering
the resistance of ,the external circuit strengthens the field, thereby
increasing the electro-motive force and the current strength. Some
cut out means are usually provided to break the external circuit
or to interpose added resistance to keep the current strength rela-
tively constant and prevent injury to the windings by heating of
the vrire and melting of the insulation. In a shunt wound dynamo
the lowering of resistance on the outer circuit takes current from
the field and lowers the electro motive force of the machine. Short
circuiting has no heating effects. A compound wound machine
combines, to a certain degree, the features of both the shunt and
series wound dynamo. In a dynamo where the armature windings
are grouped in coils which have independent terminals and which
are not connected in series, the construction is termed * * open coil. * '
The terminals are attached to separate divisions of the commutator
and are so spaced that the collecting brushes touch each pair be-
longing to the same coil simultaneously. The brushes therefore
take current from only one coil at a time. In a closed coil dynamo,
the armature windings are connected in series and current is de-
livered from all coils.

Electrical Terms Defined. — In referring to any force it is nec-
essary to have some units by which its capacity may be judged.
For instance, in comparing bodies of different size we can use units
' which will show the difference of mass or dimensions, such- as
pounds or feet, or the fractions and multiples thereof. To gauge
the ability of the electric force there are several practical units
with which all motorists should be familiar. They are the volt,
watt, ohm and ampere.

The VOLT is the practical unit of electro-motive force, pres-
sure, or difference of potential or condition, existing between differ-
ent parts of the circuit. Referring again to the reservoirs of
water, we would find a foot height of liquid a very convenient ex-
pression to use as a difference of height or head of water, and such
is in constant use by all engineers. This is a precise analogy to the
volt which is the unit that measures the tendency of an electric
charge to escape to the opposite level, this being the actuating force

58 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

such as a short length of a good conductor; others have so much
as to form a most effectual barrier to the passage of the current,
these being commonly known as insulators. As an example, con-
sider a man lifting weights. The heavier the weight, the harder
he must work to lift it. A little body weighing a few ounces offers
so little resistance that it can be raised from the ground with a
negligible amount of work. At the other hand it may have a mass

Fsed Wires

®OoooO<»

Feed Wirea

Starting Bheostat

Field Winding-

Fig. 20. — ^Diagram Showing Electric Motor Windings. At Left — Series

Wound. At BigHt — Shunt Wound.

of several tons, in which case enough resistance would be offered to
make it immovable against the efforts of one man, though a num-
ber of men might easily move it without mechanical aid.

A substance that would offer considerable resistance to a current
of low-tension or voltage would be easily overcome by a current
having greater electro-motive force. For instance, it is impossible
to pass the current obtained, from several cells of dry battery
through the air gap between the points of a plug, as the current

60 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

watts indicate an amount of electrical energy equal to one me-
chanical horsepower.

Electrical Measuring Instruments. — As the electric force is
intangible and is known only by its effects, it is necessary to have
methods of measuring the amount employed to properly use the
current. If the current was too strong injurious results might fol-
low and if not strong enough satisfactory results could not be se-
cured. The electric force can be measured by relatively simple
devices. Most of the electrical measuring instruments depend upou
the principle of electro-magnetism or induction and may be classi-
fied as moving iron, moving coil, solenoid and plunger, magnetic
vane, Jiot wire, inclined coil, etc. The four first named are the most
commonly used in measuring the current employed in starting and
lighting systems. These measuring instruments are made in port-
able and switchboard types. The windings in an instrument de-
signed to measure current quantity or amperage is usually of coarse
wires, while the windings of an instrument to measure electro mo-
tive force or voltage will be of finer wire. The gauge used to
measure current quantity is called an ampere meter or ammeter
while that used to measure current pressure is a volt meter.

The various forms of electrical measuring instruments and the
method of operation may be readily understood by referring to
the illustrations at Fig. 21. The instrument shown at A is known
as a moving iron type. In this a permanent magnet holds a soft
iron indicator to which the pointer needle is attached so that it
registers with zero on the scale until a current passes through the
coil and the magnetic lines of force thus produced tend to pull the
needle in line with them and thereby actuate the pointer. The
movement of the soft iron indicator depends entirely upon the
amount of current passing through the coil. The moving coil pipe
which is shown at B is the most popular form, as it gives the most
reliable indication. The parts of a complete instrument of this
form are clearly outlined at Fig. 22. This consists of a permanent
magnet carrying a fixed pole piece about which a small solenoid
capable of oscillating back and forth on jeweled bearings is
mounted. On the cheap instruments ordinary pivot bearings are
used instead of the jewels. A hand or pointer is pivoted at the

62 Starting, lAghUng and Ignition Systems

ceases to flow tbrough the solenoid. The function of the magnetic
field is to heep the solenoid steady, thongh as soon as an electric
carrent passes through its eqnilibrium is upset and the degree of
movement is proportional to the amount or pressure of the cnrrent
passing through it. Many small instruments which are accurate
and inexpensive have been devised for testing current strength.

PFRMAUFNT

Tig. 22. — Diagram Showing OonBtniction of Moving Ooil T^pe Voltmeter.

For convenience the mechanism has been enclosed in standard watch
movement cases in many instances.

The plunger type of indicator which is shown at C and D oper-
ates on the principle of attraction that a solenoid exerts upon ma-
terials susceptible to its influence. A curved plunger is used in
that type usually intended for switch-board use. When a current
is passed through the solenoid, the plunger is drawn into the in-
terior of the coil, the amount of movement depending upon the
current strength. This is indicated by a calibrated scale and

Electrical Measuring Instrumenta 6ft

pointer. The small battery tester which ia very simple in construc-
tion works on exactly the same principle, except that the Tertical
plunger which is drawn into the solenoid has the scale indicated
upon it. The solenoid is kept pressed out against a stop by
spring pressure which is overcome as soon as the current passes
through the winding. The plunger type is not reliable for very
small readings and is readily affected by any magnetic field in
the vicinity.

The instrument shown at E is a magnetic vane type. In this
a vane of soft iron is
supported eccentrically
or off center and when
a current passes through
the surrounding coil the
vane is attracted toward
the position where it
will conduct the greatest
number of lines of force,
this movement actuates
the pointer attached to
the vane support and a
hair spring ia used as in
other instruments to re-
turn the pointer to zero
when the current flow

ceases and also to steady ^g 23.-Typi«Ll Dash Type Amperemeter
the action of the instru- used with Modem UgbtlDg System,

meut. The small am-

peremetera are used only for testing dry cells, as the acale reads
only to 30 amperes. This form of inatrument is also used as an
indicator to show the rate of charge of a storage battery by the
generator or current consumption of the lamps of the lighting
system, ^he ordinary form of ammeter should never be used
for teating storage cells and a voltmeter is necessary for tiiis pur-
pose. Sometimes an amperemeter is so constructed with an in-
ternal resistance that can be put in series with the solenoid coil
that it will read voltage on another scale. Ah instrument thai

64 Starting, Lighting ajid Ignition Systems

POSmVE, SOMETIMES ABBREVIATED "/>"

NEGATIVE,SOMETIMES ABBREVIATED "N"

ARROW INDICATES DIRECTION OF CURRENT FLOW.

CLOCKWISE REVOLUTION.

PRIMARY.

COUNTER-CLOCKWISE REVOLUTION,

-VSA/-

COIL OF INSULATED WIRE. (COARSE.)

-lA/WWW-

COIL OF INSULATED WIRE. (FINE.)

AMMETER.

PUSH BUTTON OR
LIGHTING SWITCH.

VOLTMETER.

STARTING SWITCH.

SHUNT WOUND MACHINE
MOTOR OR GENERATOR.

MOTOR-GENERATOR
3-TERMINAL.

SERIES WOUND MACHINE
MOTOR OR GENERATOR.

>+!

MOTOR-GENERATOR\
4-TERMINAL.

<G>

GENERATOR.

CARBON OF DRY BATTERY.

<M>

MOTOR.

ZINC OF DRY BATTERY.

WIRES JOINED TOGETHER, SAME CIRCUIT.

WIRES CROSSING, SEPARATE CIRCUITS.

-^fmi

RHEOSTAT OR VARIABLE RESISTANCE.

— ^-

INCANDESCENT LAMP.

SECONDARY.

l|iP^

DRY CELLS OR STORAGE BATTERY. CELLS IN SERIES.

VOLT, UNIT OF POTENTIAL OR PRESSURE.

AMPERE, UNIT OF CURRENT QUANTITY.

D. C.

DIRECT CURRENT, FLOWS C0NTINUOULY AND ALWAYS
IN ONE DIRECTION.

A. C.

ALTERNATING CURRENT, FLOWS FIRST IN ONE DIRECTION

THEN THE OTHER.

K.W.

KILOWATT. (1,000 WATTS).

H. P.

HORSEPOWER. (746 WATTS).

WA TT= ONE VOL T X ONE A MPERE.

GROUND CONNECTION.

HEA VY CABLE.

0=0

FUSE.

OCDOQCSIScD

BALLAST COIL .

PUSH BUTTON.

0=0

COWL LIGHT.

AUTOMATIC
CUT-OUT.

Tig. 24.— Index to Signs, Symbols and Abbreviations Used in Wiring

Diagrams.

Electrical Measuring Instruments

will indicate 30 amperes and register up to eight volts has a range
that is ample for all practical purposes. Some very low reading
ammeters vrere formerly sold extensively as coil current consump-
tion indicators, but with the passing of the vibrator coil ignition
system they are no longer used to any extent.

CHAPTER II

BATTERY AND COIL IGNITION METHODS

How Compressed Gas May Be Ignited — ^Methods of Electric Ignition — Parts
of Simple Ignition System — Induction Coil Action — Timers and Distrib-
utors— Spark Plugs — ^Individual Coil System — ^Vibrator-Distributor Sys-
tems— ^Master Vibrator Systems — Non- Vibrator Distributbr System — ^Lovr
Tension Ignition — Double and Triple Ignition Systems — Battery Ignition
System Troubles — Charging Storage Batteries — Care and Repair of Spark
Plug Faults — Induction Coil — Timers — ^Wiring Troubles and Electro-static
Effects — ^Timing Battery Ignition 'System.

How Compressed Gas May Be Ignited. — One of the most im-
portant auxiliary groups of the gasoline engine comprising the
automobile power plant and one absolutely necessary to insure en-
gine action is the ignition system or the method employed of kin-
dling the compressed gas in the cylinder to produce an explosion
h,nd useful power. The ignition system has been fully as well de-
veloped as other parts of the automobile, and at the present time
practically all ignition systems follow principles which have become
standard through wide acceptance.

During the early stages of development of the automobile vari-
ous methods of exploding the charge of combustible gas in the
cylinder were employed. On some of the earliest engines a flame
burned close to the cylinder head and at the proper time for igni-
tion, a slide or valve moved to provide an opening which permitted
the flame to ignite the gas back of the piston. This system was
practical only in the primitive form of gas engines in which the
charge was not compressed before ignition. Later, when it was
found desirable to compress the gas a certain degree before ex-
ploding it, an incandescent platinum tube in the combustion cham-
ber, which was kept in a heated condition by a flame burning in it,
exploded the gas. The naked flame was not suitable in this appli

Methods of Electrical Ignition 67

cation because when the slide was opened to provide communica-
tion between the flame and the gas the compressed charge escaped
from the cylinder with enough pressure to blow out the flame at
times and thus cause irregular ignition. When the flame was
housed in a platinum tube it was protected from the direct action
of the gas, and as long as the tube was maintained at the proper
point of incandescence regular ignition was obtained.

Some engineers utilized the property of gases firing themselves
if compressed to a sufficient degree, while others depended upon
the heat stored in the cylinder head to fire the highly compressed
gas. None of these methods were practical in their application to
motor car engines because they did not permit flexible engine action
which is so desirable. At the present time, electrical ignition sys-
tems in which the compressed gas is exploded by the heating value
of the minute electric arc or «park in the cylinder are standard,
and the general practice seems to be toward the use of mechanical
producers of electricity rather than chemical batteries used alone.

Methods of Electrical Ignition. — Two general forms of electri-
cal ignition systems may be used, the most popular being that in
which a current of electricity under high tension is made to leap
a gap or air space between the points of the sparking plug screwed
into the cylinder. The other form, which has been almost entirely
abandoned in automobile practice, but which is still used to some
extent on marine engines, is called the low-tension system because
current of low voltage is used and the spark is produced by moving
electrodes in the combustion chamber.

The essential elements of any electrical ignition system, either
high or low tension, are : First, a simple and practical method of
current production ; second, suitable timing apparatus to cause the
spark to occur at the right point in the cycle of engine action;
third, suitable wiring and other apparatus to convey the current
produced by the generator to the sparking member in the cylinder.

The various appliances necessary to secure prompt ignition of
the compressed gases should be described in some detail because
of the importance of the ignition system. It is patent that the
scope of a work of this character does not permit one to go fully
into the theory and principles of operation of all appliances which

Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

Tig. 25. — simple Battery Ignition System f oi One-Oyllndei Uotor Show-
ing Important Components and Tlieli Relation to Each Other.

may be used in connection with gasoline motor ignition, but at the
same time it is important that the elementary principles be con-
sidered to some extent in order that the reader should have a proper

70 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

through the primary coil of the transformer. This magnetizes the
core which draws down the trembler blade, this in turn separating
the platinum contact point of the vibrator and interrupting the
current. As soon as the current is interrupted at the vibrator the
core ceases to be a magnet and the trembler blade flies back and
once again closes the circuit between the platinum points. Every
time the circuit is made and broken at the vibrator an electrical im-.
pulse is induced in the secondary winding of the coil.

The vibrator may be adjusted so that it will make and break
the circuit many times a minute and as a current of high potential
is produced in the secondary winding with each impulse, a small
spark will be produced between the points of the spark plug. The
condenser is a device composed of layers of tin foil separated from
each other by waxed or varnished paper insulation. It is utilized
to absorb some of the excess current produced between the vibrator
points, which causes sparking. This extra current is induced by
the action of the primary coils of wire upon each other and by a
reversed induction influence from the secondary coil.

If this current is not taken care of, it will impede the passage
of the primary current and the sparks are apt to burn or pit the
platinum contact points of the vibrator. When a condenser is pro-
vided the extra primary current is absorbed by the sheets of tin foil
which become charged with electricity. When contact is made again
the condenser discharges the current in the same direction as that
flowing through the primary coil from the battery and the value
of the latter is increased proportionately. There is less sparking be-
tween the vibrator points and a stronger current is induced in the
secondary coil which in turn produces a more intense spark be-
tween the points of the spark plug.

A typical induction coil such as would be used for firing a one-
cylinder engine if used with a simple timer, or a multiple-cylinder
engine if used in connection with a combined timer and distributor,
is depicted in part section at Fig. 26. It will be observed that three
terminal screws are provided on the box, one designed to be attached
to the battery, the other two to the spark plug and ground, respec-
tively. The terminal to which the battery wire is attached is
coupled to the bridge member which carries the contact screw while

72 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

PRimRY

fiommm

shown at Pig. 26, is a conventional one, though the connections will
differ with the nature of the circuit of which the coil forms a part
and the number of units comprising the coil assembly. When such
devices are employed for igniting multiple-cylinder motors, the in-
ternal wiring is very much the same as though the same number of

box coils for single-cyl-
inder ignition were com-
bined together by out-
side conductors. The
number of terminals
provided will vary with
the number of units.

Various forms of in-
duction coils are de-
picted at Fig.. 28. That
at A is a simple unit
form in which the coil
is attached directly to
the spark plug, which in
turn is screwed into the
cylinder. On this coil
but two primary termi-
nals are attached, one
being connected to the
insulated contact point
on the timer, the other
being grounded, or at-
tached to the battery.
Coils of this type have been very popular in marine application
because of the simple and direct wiring possible, but they have
not been used in connection with automobile engine ignition to
any extent. The form shown at B is a simple dash coil for one-
cylinder use which has three terminals, one being used for a
secondary lead to the spark plug, the other two being joined to
the battery and ground respectively, as shown at Fig. 26.

The form of coil shown at C is a two-unit member designed for
double-cylinder ignition. As the switch is mounted on the coil box

T\%. 27. — ^Tliree Terminal Box Coil for Single
Cylinder Engine Ignition.

74 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

to use two sets of batteries, six terminals are provided on the bottom
of the coil case. Two of these are attached directly to the insulated
contact point of the timer; two others which are enclosed in hard
rubber insulatiag caps are attached to the spark plugs. The two
immediately under the switch are attached to the free terminals
of the battery, two sets being provided, one being coupled to each
side of the switch.

With a four-unit coil, as shown at D, ten terminals are provided
because of the attached switch. Four go to the spark plugs, four to
the insulated segments of the timer and two to the battery, or bat-
tery and magneto or dynamo, as the case may be. In modern coils
the units may be removed from the box without disturbing any
internal connection, and a new one slipped in its place if it does
not function properly. Special care is taken in insulating the high-
tension terminal by means of rubber caps which surround the wire,
and care is taken to have the vibrator contact points readily acces-
sible for inspection, cleaning, or adjustment.

Action of High Tension Coil Ignition . System. — Another ex-
planation of the action of the conventional induction coil and bat-
tery system may enable the reader to obtain a clearer understanding
of the action of the transformer coil system of intensifying cur-
rent and can be read to advantage to supplement the explanation
previously given. Another diagram. Fig. 29, shows a four terminal
coil unit instead of the three terminal coil diagram outlined at
Fig. 25, and differs in that the primary and secondary circuits
have separate ground connections instead of having a common ter-
minal on the coil. As the internal construction of the induction
coil has been previously described, it will be merely necessary to
review the action of the complete ignition system outlined.

In the diagram shown the action is as follows : When the switch
E is closed and the rotor (f ) of the spark-timing device D comes in
contact with the terminal (g), the current flows from the positive
terminal (m) of the battery to the switch E. From thence to the
primary terminal (h) on the coil ; and through the vibrator spring
(e) across the points (o) which are in contact, to the adjusting
screw (i) and into the bridge which supports the adjusting screw.
The primary winding (b) is attached to this bridge at (j) and

76 • Starting J Lighting and Ignition Systems

The vibrator is composed of a piece of spring steel with a small
iron button riveted to the end of it. When the circuit is complete
and the core is magnetized it attracts the iron button and breaks
the contact of the points at (o), thus interrupting or opening the
circuit and preventing further jSow of the current. The core then
loses its magnetism and the vibrator spring pulls the button back
;and again brings the points in contact to again complete the cir-
cuit. This occurs about one hundred times per second and the
rapid vibration produces a pronounced buzzing sound 'at the vi-
brator.

When the points (o) are in contact and the core is magnetized
a very strong magnetic field flows across the wire of the secondary
winding (c). When the field becomes strong enough to attract the
vibrator button the circuit is broken and the current sto{)s flowing.
As soon as the current ceases to flow and^ the magnetic field or
force becomes reduced in intensity, a strong or high voltage cur-
rent is produced in the secondary winding. This current flows to
the spark plug F from the secondary terminal of the coil (s) and it
has sufficient power to jump the air gap at (p), causing a spark.
The spark plug construction is such that after jumping the air gap
the secondary current will flow back to the engine and from the
ground terminal (1) to the terminal (t) and then back through the
secondary winding to the terminal (s) from which it started.

The magnetic field dying down has thus produced an induced
current in the secondary winding, and in addition it will also set
up a self -induced current in the primary winding. As the break
in the primary circuit is made at the vibrator points, a large
spark would occur there and very soon bum them away. To
absorb the extra current which causes this spark a condenser is
connected across the points by the wires (v) and (w). When the
circuit is opened at (o) the self -induced current of the primary
winding flows in the same direction as the original battery current.
As the condenser has less resistance than the air gap which this
current would have to jump at (o) it absorbs the current, and
immediately that the condenser is charged, it discharges. The.
contact points (o) of the vibrator being separated at this time, the
current from the condenser cannot pass through them to get to

Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

the revolving member of the timer turns at engine speed, and
should be driven directly from and at the same speed as the crank
shaft.

Simple timer forms suitable for one-cylinder motors are shown
at Fig. 30. The simplest one, depicted at A, consists of a rocking
member of fiber or other insulating material which carries a steel
spring that is normally out of engagement with the surface of the
cam. When the point of the cam brushes by the contact spring,

Contact
''Spring

Contact Points

Fig. 30. — Simple Forms of Contact Breakers or Timers Used on One
Cylinder Engines. A — ^Wipe Contact. B — ^Touch Contact.

any circuit in which the device is incorporated will be closed and
current will flow from the battery or dynamo to the transformer
coils and spark plugs which are depended on to furnish a spark
of sufficient intensity to insure ignition of the gas. It is desirable
that the member which carries the contact spring be capable of a
certain degree of movement, in order that the spark time may be
advanced or retarded to suit various running conditions. In the
form shown if the top of the casing is pushed in the direction
of the arrow, the contact spring will come in contact with the point
of the cam which is turning in the direction indicated sooner than

80 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

A secondary distributor which is employed to distribute both
liigh and low tension current is shown at Fig. 31, B. This consists
of a primary timing arrangement in the lower portion, and a
secondary current -distributing segment at the upper portion. The
central revolving member carries as many rolls as there are cylin-
ders to be fired, these being spaced at the proper points m the

Fig. 31. — Timers Employed on Fonr Cylinder Engines. A — Fonr Contact
Device for Oomrantatltig Primary Onrrent. B — Combined Timer and
DUtrllmtor, Directs Botb High and IiOw Tension Energy,

circle to insure correct timing. One primary contact member is
screwed into the casing, this contacting with the rolls as they
revolve. At the upper portion rf the ease a number of terminals
are inserted from which wires lead to plugs in the cylinders.
When a timer of the form shown at A is used, a separate induc-
tion coil is needed for each cylinder and the number of units in
the coil box and contact points on the timer will be the same as
the number of cylinders to be fired. "When a secondary distributor

82 Starting^ Lighting and Ignition Systems

central hollow revolving member. Some timers of the form shown
at Fig. 31, A, are fitted with a plain bearing which wears after
the timer has been used and which produces irregular ignition
due to a poor ground contact. Battery timers of the forms out-
lined are seldom used at the present time, as they have been suc-
ceeded by the more efficient short contact types. A notable excep-

Fig. 32. — Showing Disposition of Contact Points on Timers for Differing
Numbers of Cylinders. A — One Cylinder Type. B — ^Arrangement of
Two Cylinder Opposed Motor. C — Contacts Separated by 90 De-
grees in One Direction and 270 Degrees in the Other when Used on
a Two Cylinder Vertical Engine with Opposed Crank Pins. D—
Three Cylinder Form. E — Spacing for Four Cylinder Engines. F —
Type Employed on Six Cylinder Power Plant.

tion to this almost general rule is the Ford car, which is manu-
factured in immense quantities and which utilizes the roller con-
tact timer previously described.

One of the best known of the short contact forms of timer is
the Atwater-Kent, which is usually combined with a secondary
distributor as shown at Fig. 35. The method of placing this
timing and distributing member in circuit is clearly shown in

Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

interrupter, the other to a grounding screw attached to the inter-
rupter casing. The secondary terminal is connected to the central
terminal of the distributor, while the remaining four terminals
are joined to the plugs in the engine cylinders in such order as
to insure proper sequence of explosions. The external view of
the Atwater-Kent uni-sparker is shown at Fig. 35, A. In this
a centrifugal mechanism is contained in the lower Dart of the

Co//

D/str/buter to Cot/

Un/spar/cer

/nterrupter to Coi/

Ground to Coi/

Tig, 34 — ^Wiling Diagram of Atwater-Kent Uni-Sparker.

casing by which the spark is automatically advanced as the speed
of the engine increases.

The only points that will wear on a device of this character are
the contact points which are clearly shown in the view of the
contact breaker mechanism at Fig. 36. The revolving shaft in the
center has a number of notches, two, three, four, six, or eight,
according to the number of cylinders to be fired, cut into it. A
light, hardened steel trigger, B, is held against the shaft at this
point by a small spring. On turning the shaft this trigger is carried
forward by the notches in the shaft, and is suddenly released as the
hook end leaves the notch. In so doing the back of the trigger

Atwater-Kent Um-Sparker 85

strikes a small pivoted hammer, D, situated between the trigger and
the spring carrying the contact points. This causes the contact
points, K, to open and close with remarkahle rapidity, but one con-
tact being made for each spark. When it is desired to adjust the
platinum contact points, as when they show signs of wear, it is only
necessary to remove one or more of a number of extremely thin
washers under the head of the adjustment screw and to replace

Fig. 35. — Showing Oonstniction of Atwater-Kent Uni-Sparker.

the screw. The contact points should be absolutely clean and
bright and have smooth contacting surfaces. The distributor por-
tion of the device consists of a hard rubber block fitted to the
top of the primary shaft, this carrying a brass quadrant that
passes the high tension current to the spark plugs by means of the
terminal points imbedded in the hemispherical cover. There is no
actual contact between the rotating quadrant and the distributor
points, as the high tension current is capable of jumping the very

Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

Fig. 36, — Diagrams Explaining Action of Atwater-Eent Conta-tA, Breakei'.

alight gap that exists between them. Owing to there being no act-
ual contact, there will be no depreciation in the distributor or
upper portion. The center terminal, which is in connection with
the induction coil, is a combination of carbon and brass, and a

Delco Battery Ignition System 87

light, flat spring on the quadrant bears against it to maintain
positive electrical connection. The distributor cover is easily re-
moved without the use of tools, as it is held by spring clips.
Location or dowel pins in its lower edge insure that it will be
replaced in the correct position.

One of the most popular of the combined starting, lighting and
ignition systems is the Delco, which is shown at Fig. 37. For
the present we will concern ourselves merely with discussing the
ignition functions of the system, leaving the self-starting and
electric lighting features for more comprehensive -consideration
later. Current is produced by a one unit type motor-generator,
although the windings of the device when operated as a motor or a
generator are entirely separate. The ignition current is obtained
either from a storage battery which is kept in a state of charge by
the generator, or from a set of dry cells which are carried for
reserve ignition. The ignition system consists of a one unit non-
vibrator coil, sometimes attached to the top of the motor generator,
though it may be placed at any convenient part of the car and a
dual automatic distributor and timer usually included as a part
of the device as shown. "When ignition current is supplied frop
the lighting circuit the current passes from the storage battery
through a switch and out to the low tension winding of the coil,
from whence it passes to the timer and from there to the frame,
where it is grounded. The high tension current generated in the
coil runs to the distributor, where it is switched to the spark plug
in the different cylinders in turn.

When dry cells are used for ignition the operation is the same
except that a device called **the ignition relay,'' and shown at
the right of Fig. 38, is added to the circuit. The function of
this device is to break the circuit immediately after it has been
completed by the contact points of the timer, which is shown at
the left. The use of the ignition relay results in a material saving
of the battery current as the circuit is closed a much shorter time
than is the case when the circuit is broken by the timer contacts
themselves. The operation of the relay is not difficult to under-
stand. The magnet A attracts the armature B when the circuit
is completed through the timer. This action opens contact C and

Starting, Lighting and Igmtion Systems

Action of Delco Ignition System 89

breaks the timer circuit. A condenser D is mounted besides the
magnet coil A, in order to absorb the current produced by self-
inductio.i in the magnet winding, which would be apt to produce
a hot spark between the contact points when they were separated
if no means were taken for its disposal. The adjustment of the
relay is at the pole piece E. This regulates the distance between
the armature B and the mftgnet pole, and the gap between the
contacts C. The adjustment is made by turning the notched head
at E clockwise to increase, anti-clockwise to decrease, the gap be-
tween the contacts.*. The correct distance between contacts C when
the armature B is pressed down is equal to approximately the
thickness of one sheet of newspaper. A very simple way in which
the adjustment can be made when the engine is running on the
battery is to turn the notched head of the pole piece in the counter-
clockwise direction until the motor ceases to fire. Then turn it
four or five notches in the opposite direction. Under no condi-
tions should the adjustment screw be turned very far in either
direction. If the armature vibrates feebly when the starting but-
ton is pressed it indicates either weak dry cells or dirt between
the relay or timer contacts.

The interior arrangement of one form of timer for both dry cells
and storage battery current is shown at Fig. 38. The cam C is
driven by a rotating shaft and establishes contact between the
points when the cam rider rises on the point of the cam. "When
the cam rider drops into the notch between the high points the
contact points separate. The same instructions that have been
given for the contact points of the Atwater-Kent timer apply just
as well in this case. While the contact points are but one-eighth
inch in diameter, it is said that many thousands of miles of service
may be obtained without readjusting. It is important that the
contact spring, which is the straight one carrying the platinum
point, should have a good tension outward against the cam rider
member below it. It is said that this spring should be capable
of supporting the weight of half a pound. If the tension is not
sufficiently great the contact points barely break contact which
permits the spark to arc between them, tending to burn them.
The contact should be so adjusted that the contact spring is

90 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

forced away from the breaker member at least half the distance
of the T-slot on the vertical part of the earn rider, when the latter
is on the contact lobe of the cam. The contact points should open
abont ten one-thousandths (.010 inch) inch when the contact arm
rests upon the back stop. The contact arm should clear the cam
except at the contact lobe. A short wire connects the two posts

Fig. S8. — Selco Pilmarr Timer at Left and IgnlUon Belaf at Blgbt

of the breaker arms and this connection should always be inspected
when making adjustments to insure that it has not been disturbed.
It is said that if this wire is disconnected the current will pass
through the contact spring, impairing its tension. Whenever the
contact points are cleaned care should be taken to have the sur-
faces parallel.

In some of the Delco ignition Eiystems an automatic spark ad-
vance mechanism is nsed. The usual method of wiring when the
distributor is a separate member from the generator is shown at
A, the left of Pig. 39. The construction of the automatic spark
vanee mechanism is shown at B, In this the shaft which trans-

Delco Automatic Spark Advance 91

mits motion to the timer is in the foVm oi a tube T, revolved by
spiral gears. An inclined slot is cut through the walls of this hol-
low driving member. A smaller shaft is carried inside of the
hollow member, and a vertical slot is cut through this shaft in
order to permit a pin to pass through it, said pin being actuated
by a collar adapted to slide up and down on the outside of the
hollow driving shaft. The pin passes through both the straight

Fig. 39. — ^Parts of Delco 1911 S78t«n. A — Delco Timer, Coll and Con-
denset AsaemMy. B — Oonstmction of Delco Automatic Spark Ad-
vance. C — Delco Voltago Begnlator.

slot in the small shaft -ftid the incline slot in the hollow driving
member. If the collar holding the pin is moved it will change its
angular relation with the small shaft which will advance the tim-
ing cam of the contact breaker. The collar is shifted by a spring
loaded revolving ring R, which moves from the position shown in
the drawing to a horizontal position as the speed increases. This
ring is eonnec'.«d to the sliding collar and causes it to rise, ad-
vancing the spark as the engine speeds up or to fall, retarding
the spark as the engine speed decreases. If desired, the spark

92 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

timing may be controlled inSependently of the automatic advance
mechanism by a spark lever connected to the corresponding mem-
ber on the steering wheel. The voltage regulator, which will be
described when discussing the generating function of the Delco
instrument, is shown at Fig. 39, C.

Condenser. — The condenser consists of two long strips of folded
tinfoil insulated from each other by paraffined or oiled paper, and
connected as shown in Fig. 40. The condenser has the property
of bdng able to hold a certain quantity of electrical energy, and
like the storage battery, will discharge this energy if there is any
circuit between its terminal. As the distributor contacts open the
magnetism commences to die out of the iron core, this induces a
voltage in both the primary and secondary windings of the coiL
This induced voltage in the primary winding amounts to from 100
to 125 volts. This charges the condenser which immediately dis-
charges itself through the primary winding of the coil in the reverse
direction from which the ignition current originally flows. This
discharge of the condenser causes the iron core of the coil to be
quickly demagnetized and remagnetized in the reverse direction,
with the result that the change of magnetism within the secondary
winding is very rapid, thus producing a high voltage in the second-
ary winding which is necessary for ignition purposes. In addition
to rapidly demagnetizing the coil the condenser prevents sparking
at the breaker contacts — thus it is evident that the action of the
condenser can very seriously affect the amount of the spark from
the secondary winding and the amount of sparking obtained at the
timer contacts.

Ignition Coil. — This is sometimes mounted on top of the inotor
generator and is what is generally knowh as the ignition trans-
former coil. In addition to being a plain transformer coil it has
incorporated in it a condenser (which is necessary for all high
tension ignition systems) and has included on the rear end an
ignition resistance unit. The coil proper consists of a round core of
a number of small iron wires. Wound around this and insulated
from it is the primary winding. The circuit and arrangement of
the different parts are shown in Fig. 41. The primary current
is supplied through the combination switch and resistance on the

Delco Ignition System Parts 93

coil, through the primary winding, to the distributor contacts. This
is very plainly shown on the circuit diagram. It is the inter-
rupting of this primary current hy the timer contacts together
■with the action of the condenser whi^ causes a rapid demagnetiza^
tion of the iron core of the coil that induces the high tension current
in the secondary winding. This secondary winding consists of sev-

OOBTAOT 18 OROOHMD

Tig. 40. — Simplified Wiring Diagram Sliowliis Action of Delco Ignition
System.

eral thousand turns of very fine copper wire, the different layers of
which are well insulated from each other and from the primary
winding, one end of which terminates at the high tension terminal
about midway on top of the coiL It is from this terminal that the
high tension current is conducted to the distributor where it is dis-
tributed to the proper cylinders by the rotor shown in Pig. 42.

Ignition Besistance TTnit. — The ignition resistance unit which
is shown in Fig. 41 is for the purpose of obtaining a more nearly

94 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

auiform current through the primary winding of the ignition
coil at the time the distributor contacts open. It consists of
a number of turns of iron wire, the resistance of which is consider-
ably more than the resistance of the primary winding of the ignition
coil. If the ignition resistance unit was not in the circuit and the
coil was so constructed as to give the proper spark at high speeds,
the primary current at low speeds would be several times its normal
value with serious results to the timer contacts. This is evident
from the fact that the primary current is limited by the resistance

^"L^TP^l^ Til^lNALS msT

Fig. 41. — Sectional View Showing ArrEiDgement of Wiring In Delco
Ignition Coll.

of the coil and resistance unit by the impedence of the coil. (Im-
pedence is the choking effect which opposes any alternating or pul-
sating current magnetizing the iron core.) The impedence increases
as the speed of the pulsations increase. At low speeds the resistance
of the unit increases, due to the slight increases of current heating
the resistance wire.

The Circuit Breater. — The circuit breaker is mounted on the
combination switch as shown in Fig. 42, This is a protective
device which takes the place of a fuse block and fuses. It prevents
the discharging of the battery or damage to the switch or ■wiring

Delco Ignition System Parts

to the lamps, in the event of any of the wires leading to these
becoming grounded. As long as the lamps are using the normal
amount of current the circuit breaker is not affected. But in the
event of any of the wires becoming grounded an abnormally heavy
current is conducted through the circuit breaker, thus producing a
strong magnetism which attracts the pole piece and opens the con-

O LIGHTING IGN.
DELCO

oOOOO

h 0

CiircuiT ff/i^e^fce/r

HunaeF^ Ofloy^£/fT£R/1lNAL9

Fig. 42. — ^Delco Combination Switch with Ammeter and Circuit Breaker

Included.

tacts. This cuts off the flow of current which allows the contacts
to close again and the operation is repeated, causing the circuit
breaker to pass an .intermittent current and give forth a vibrating
sound. It requires 25 amperes to start the circuit breaker vibrating,
but once vibrating a current of three to five amperes will cause
it to continue to operate. In case the circuit breaker vibrates re-
peatedly, do not attempt to increase the tension of the spring, as

96 Starting^ Lighting and Ignition Systems

the vibration is an indication of a ground in the system. Remove
the ground and the vibration wUl stop.

The Ammeter. — The ammeter on the right side of the combina-
tion switch is to indicate the current that is going to or coming
from the storage battery, with the exception of the cranking current.
When the engine is not running and current is being used for Ughts,
the ammeter shows the amount of current that is being used and the
ammeter hand points to the discharge side, as the current is being
discharged from the battery. When the engine is running above
generating speeds and no current is being used for lights or horn,
the ammeter will show charge. This is the amount of current that
is being charged into the battery. If current is being used for
lights, ignition and hor» in excess of the amount that is being gen-
erated, the ammeter will show a discharge as the excess current
must be discharged from the battery, but at all ordinary speeds the
ammeter will read charge.

Construction of 1916 Delco Ignition Distributor. — It is well
understood that a rich mixture burns quicker than a lean one. For
this reason the engine will stand more advance with a half open
throttle than with a wide open throttle, and in order to secure the
proper timing of the ignition due to these variations and to re-
tard the spark for starting, idling and carburetor adjusting, the
Delco distributor also has a manual control. The automatic fea-
ture of this distributor is shown in. Fig. 43. With the spark
lever set at the running position on the steering wheel (which
is nearly all the way down on the quadrant), the automatic
feature gives the proper spark for all speeds excepting a wide
open throttle at low speeds, at which time the spark lever
should be slightly retarded. • When the ignition is too far ad-
vanced it causes loss of power and a knocking sound within the
engine. With too late a spark there is a loss of power (which is
usually not noticed excepting by an experienced driver or one very
familiar with the car), and heating of the engine and excessive
consumption of fuel is the result. The timer contacts shown at
D and C (Fig. 43) are two of the most important points of
an automobile. Very little attention will keep these in perfect con-
dition. These are of tungsten metjal, which is extremely hard and

Delco Ignition System Parts

requires a very high temperature to melt. Under normal condi-
tions they wear or bum very slightly and will very seldom require
attention; but in the
event of abnormal
voltage, such as would
be obtained by run-
ning with the battery
removed, or with the
ignition resistance unit
shorted out, or with
a defective condenser,
these contacts bum
rapidly and in a short
time will cause serious
ignition trouble. The
ear should not be oper-
ated with the battery
removed.

It is a very easy
matter to check the re-
sistance unit by observ-
ing its heating when
the ignition button is
out and the contacts in
the distributor are
closed. If it is shorted
out it will not heat up,
and will cause missing
at low speeds. A de-
fective condenser such as will cause contact trouble will cause
serious missing of the ignition. Therefore, any one of these trou-
bles is comparatively easy to locate and should be immediately- .
remedied. These contacts should be so adjusted that when the fiber
block B is on top of one of the lobes of the cam the contacts are
Opened the thickness of the gauge on the distributor wrench.
Ifcdjust contacts by turning contact screw C and lock with nut N.
the contacts should be dressed with fine emery cloth so that tbey-

Flg. 43.— SbffwiDg Oonsttuction of 1916 Delco
Distributor for Six Cylinder IgniUon. Not«
Six IaIm Cam.

98 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

meet squarely across the entire face. The rotor distributes the high
tension current from the center of the distributor to the proper
cylinder. Care must be taken to see that the distributor head is
properly located, otherwise the rotor brush will not be in contact
with the terminal at the time the spark occurs.

Combination Switch, — The combination switch is located on the
cowl board and makes the necessary connections for ignition and

Fig. 44. — Delco Coiiitiina,tlon Switch without Amperemeter Showtng
Headlight Dimmer BesiBtmice.

lishts. The " M " button controls the magneto type ignition and
the " B " button, the dry battery ignition. In addition to this both
the " M " and " B " buttons control the circuit between the generatoi
and storage battery. When the circuit between the fcenerator and
the storage battery is closed by either the " M " or " B " buttoB
on the combination switch, the direction of flow of the current ii
from the battery to the generator when the engine is not running

Delco Ignition System Parts

as well as when it is running below 300 R. P. M. But the amount
of current that flowa from the battery at the lowest possible en^e
speeds is so small that it is negligible. That used on Bniek 1915
cars is shown at Fig.
44, the type supplied
on 1916 cars is out-
lined at Fig. 42.

To Time the Igni-
tion.— 1. Fully retard
the spark lever, 2.
Turn the engine to
mark on flywheel
about one inch past
dead center to the "7
degree" line, with No.
1 cylinder on the fir-
ing stroke. 3. Loosen
screw in center of tim-
ing mechanism (Pig.
45) and locate the
proper lobe of the cam
by turning until the

Tig. 16. — ^How Cover is Bemwed from Delco Dlstribntor.

100 Starting^ Lighting and Ignition Systems

button on the rotor comes under the high tension terminal for No, 1
cylinder. 4. Set this lobe of the cam so that when the back lash
in the distributor gears is rocked forward the timing contacts
will be open, and when the back lash is rocked backward the
contacts WILL JUST CLOSE. Tighten screw anA-replace rotor
and distributor head. The construction of the distributor head
is clearly shown at Fig. 42, which shows the internal view, while
Fig. 46 shows the exterior and plan of contact brushes.

Ignition Terminpis %

DisintMjfx>r
* Phfe

Swiich
'bTttinat

Irrherrupftr
Cover

Dtsiribuior
^ Plate

Inofucfhn
Coiii

D&trk/ior^
dhJsh-Atm.

Distributor drush

Fiber
pumper^^

Interrupfer
: Contacts

Coniacts

Adjusting

Screw

ConoKosef

^^Jnterrupter

Cam

Tig, 47.— ^Parts of Westinghouse Timer-Distributor, wMch Includes the

Induction Coil.

Westinghouse Vertical Ignition Unit. — The WeSfinghouse ver-
tical ignition unit, shown at Fig. 47, can be used for ignition from
storage batteries or plain lighting generators. This set contains,
interrupter, spark coil and condenser, and distributor, all in one
unit. One wire from the battery or generator to the ignitiQii
unit and one wire to each spark plug are all that are required —
the simplest possible connections. The interrupter, located at the
lower end of the set, has the same type of circuit-breaker as that

Westinghouse Ignition Unit

101

>n the Westinghouse ignition and lighting generators, but no
iutomatie spark advance feature. It can be used equally efficiently
for either direction of rotation without change. The interrupter
s enclosed by a spring
jollar which can be
readily removed for
inspection or adjust-
ment of the contacts.
The collar makes a
tight joint and is
2lamped by a screw
which prevents it from
slipping. The spark
;oil is embedded in
seat - proof insulating
material, ind the con-
Jenser is well insu-
lated. Both are con-
tained in a tube of
Bakelized M i c a r t a
which forms the body
if the unit. The dis-
tributor is of very
simple construction
rt'jth a wiping brush
contact of the same
type as that used on
the ignition generat- ,
ars. .It clamps to the
upper end of the set.
The wiring diagram
of this system is shown
at Fig. 48. The device
is sometimes mounted in connection with a generator when that
member is driven by direct gear connection from cam shaft which
provides a properly timed drive for the ignition unit. This method
of application is clearly shown at Fig. 49.

rig. 48. — Sbowlng iDtenuil Wiring of West-
luglioase Timer-Distrlbutoi and Coll Igni-
tion Unit.

102 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

Spark Plug Design and Application. — With the high-tension
system of ignition the spark is produced by a current of high
voltage jumping between two points which break the complete
circuit, which would exist otherwise in the secondary coil and its
external connections. The spark plug is a simple device which
consists of two terminal electrodes carried in a suitable shell mem-
ber, which is screwed into the cylinder. Typical spark plugs are
shown in section at Figs. 50 and 51, and the construction can be
, easily understood. The

secondary wire from
the coil is attached to
a terminal at the top
of a central electrode
member, which is sup-
ported in a bushing of
some form of insulat-
ing material. The type
shown at A employs a
molded porcelain as an
insulator, while that
depicted at D uses a
bushing of mica. The
insulating bu&hing and
electrode are housed
in a steel body, which
is provided with a
screw thread at the bottom, by which it is screwed into the com-
bustion chamber.

When porcelain is used as an insulating material it is kept
from direct contact with the metal portion by some form of yield-
ing packing, usually asbestos. This is necessary because the steel
and porcelain have different coefficients of expansion and some
flexibility must be provided at the joints to permit the materials
to expand differently when heated. The steel body of the plug
which is screwed into, the cylinder is in metallic contact with it
and carries sparking points which form one of the terminals of
the air gap over which. the spark occurs. The current entering

Spark Plug Construction

ijaat-wirt L«op

rig. 60. — Sectional Views Shoving Conatruction of Typical Spark Plugs.

104 Starting^ Lighting and Ignition Systems

at the top of the plug cannot reach the ground, which is repre-
sented by the metal portion of the engine, until it has traversed
the full length of the central electrode and overcome the resistance
of the gap between it and the terminal point on the shell. The
porcelain bushing is firmly seated against the asbestos packing by
means of a brass screw gland which sets against a flange formed
on the porcelain, and which screws into a thread at the upper
portion of the plug body.

The mica plug shown at D is somewhat simpler in construction
than that shown at A. The mica core which keeps the central
electrode separated from the steel body is composed of several
layers of pure sheet mica wound around the steel rod longitu-
dinally, and hundreds of stamped mica washers which are forced
over this member and compacted under high pressure with some
form of a binding material between, them. Porcelain insulators
are usually molded from high grade clay and are approximately
of the shapes desired by the designers of the plug. The central
electrode may be held in place by mechanical means such as nuts,
packings, and a shoulder on the rod, as shown at A. Another
method sometimes used is to cement the electrode in place by
means of some form of fire-clay cement. Whatever method of
fastening is used, it is imperative that the joints be absolutely
tight so that no gas can escape at the time of explosion. With a
mica plug the electrode and the insulating bushing are really a
unit construction and are assembled in permanent assembly at
the time the plug is made.

Other insulating materials sometimes used are glass, steatite
(which is a form of soapstone), and lava. Mica and porcelain are
the two common materials used because they give the best results.
Glass is liable to crack while lava or the soapstone insulating bush-
ings absorb oU. The spark gap of the average plug is equal to
about Vi6 of an inch for coU ignition and from i/64 to 1/32' of an
inch when used in magneto circuits. A simple gauge for deter-
mining the gap setting is the thickness of an ordinary visiting
card for magneto plugs, or a space equal to the thickness of a
worn dime for a coil plug. The insulating bushings are made in
a number of different ways, and while details of construction vary,

Spark Plug Construction

106 Starting^ Lighting and Ignition Systems

spark plugs do not differ essentially in design. Pour different
forms of plugs using porcelain insulation are shown in part sec-
tion at Fig. 51. Porcelain is the material most widely used be-
cause it can be glazed so that it will not absorb .oil, and it is
subjected to such high temperature in baking that it is not liable
to crack when heated.

The spark plugs may be screwed into any convenient part of
the combustion chamber, the general practice being to install them
in the caps over the inlet valves, or in the side of the combustion
chamber, so the points will be directly in the path of the entering
fresh gases from the carburetor. The methods of spark plug in-
stallation commonly used are shown at Fig. 52. At A the plug
is screwed into a threaded hole which passes through the valve
cap in such a manner that the points are in a pocket. This is
not considered to be as good as the method depicted ^t B, where
the interior of the valve cap is recessed out so there is consid-
erable clear space around the spark points. When the electrodes
are carried in a pocket they are more liable to become short cir-
cuited by oil or carbon accumulations, because it is difficult for
the fresh gases to reach them and the pocket tends to retain heat.
Ignition is not so certain because some of the burned gases may
be retained in the pocket and prevent the fresh gas from getting
in around the spark gap. With a recess, as shown at B, condi-
tions are more favorable because the fresh gases can sweep the
points of the spark plug and keep them clear, and also because
of the larger space any burned products retained in the cylinder
are not so apt to collect around the plug point. The method of
installation shown at C causes the plug to heat and is not as
efficient as that outlined at D, which permits ready transference
of heat to the cooling water in the jacket spaces.

On some types of engines which are not provided with com-
pression relief, or priming cocks, plugs are sometimes installed,
as shown at Fig. 51, C. A special fitting, which carries a priming
cup at one side, is screwed into the cylinder and the spark plug
is fitted to its upper portion. When it is desired to relieve the
compression, the valve portion is turned in such a way that a
passage is provided from the interior of the fitting to the outer air.

Spark Plug Construction

Fig. 62. — Illustrations Showing Proper and Impioper Placing of Spark
Plugs.

At the same time when the valve ia in the position shown in illus-
tration, gasoline may be introduced into the cylinder for priming
purposes. It is advanced that this method of constraction also
provides a simple means of freeing the plug points from oil ot
particles of carbon if the cock is opened while the engine is
running. The high pressure gas which brushes by the points on

108 Starting, Lighting ajid Ignition Systems

its way out of the cylinder tends to dislodge any particle of
foreign matter which may be present near the spark gap. The
same objections apply to this method of mounting as to that
illustrated at A.

Some spark plugs have been designed \Hth a view of per-
mitting one to see if the charge is being exploded regularly in the
cylinder by some form of transparent material for insulation, so
that the light produced by the explosion could be seen from the
outside of the cylinder. The simplest method of determining if a
spark is occurring regularly between the points is to use some
form of spark gap which is interposed between the source of cur-
rent and the plug terminal. A device of this nature is shown
at Fig. 51, G. It consists of a body of insulating material which
carries in a glass tube two points, which are separated by a slight
air space. The eye or hook end is attached to the plug terminal,
while the other end is attached to the secondary wire. If the
current is passing between the points of the plug, a spark will
take placiB between the points of the auxiliary spark gap every
time one occurs between the points of the plug in the cylinder.

It is claimed that there are certain advantages obtained when
a spark gap is used in the circuit, in that the spark in the cylinder
is more effective and less liable to be short circuited by particles
of foreign matter. At the other hand, others contend that the
current must be stronger to jump two gaps than would be re-
quired if only the resistance of one was to^be overcome. While
very popular at one time, the spark gap is of rather doubtful
utility and is seldom used at the present time, except as a means
of indicating if spark has taken place between the points of the
spark plug. It is apt to be somewhat misleading, however, be-
cause even if the points of the plug are short circuited and no
spark is taking place between the plug points, and yet current is
passing to the ground, a spark will continue to take place at the
auxiliary spark gap. The device is useful in showing when there
is a break or derangement of the wiring or coils. *'"*

A form of spark plug having glass bull's-eyes set into the plug
shell or body is shown at Fig. 51, H. These simple lenses are made
nf specially compounded glass, which has a high resistance to heat

110 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

is not so apt to be short circuited by soot as the projecting elec-
trode forms are, and that the spark tends to clear away material
that might short circuit the current by burning it.

The plugs shown at D and E have mica insulators instead of
porcelain. When mica is used a sheet of that iiaterial is wrapped
around the central electrode several times, after which a series

111=131

I^g. 63. — CoaTsntloual Tjrpe Of Spaik Plug aX A, Showing All Gap Be-
tween the Points. B — Prlmlag Plugs. C — Two-Point Spark Plug.

of mica washers is clamped tightly together and turned down to
form a smooth insulator. The plug at F is the only one mar-
keted using glass insulation. Other plug forms made on the same
general principles as that at A use lava or steatite as an insu-
lator instead of the porcelain or mica. For all-around service the
porcelain insulator gives the best results, as the mica and lava
insulators are apt to become oil soaked and permit the current
to short circuit through the insulator and the plug body instead

Spark Plug Construction 111

of jumping the air gap. Another representative form of spark
plug showing the proper space between the spark points is shown
at Fig. 53, A.

The plug at Fig. 53, B, is one that combines a priming feature
and is intended for use in engines of the Ford type in which no pro-
vision is made for using priming cups or compression relief cocks.
The plug body is formed in such a way that a needle valve fitting
may be screwed into it, this being intended to close a passagieway
communicatinjg from a channel around the top of the plug body
to the interior of the plug body. It is said that if this needle
valve is opened for a minute or so while the engine is running
that there will be a tendency to clear the plug points of any loose
oil or carbon. The compression may be relieved by opening the
needle valve, and if it is desired to inject gasoline into the cylinder
to promote easy starting this may be easily done by filling the
channel or groove on top of the plug body with the fuel, then
opening the needle valve to allow it to pass to the plug interior.
The gasoline will run down the walls and collect around the
spark points, where it will be readily ignited by the spark.

Plugs for Two-Spark Ignition. — On some forms of engines,
especially those having large cylinders, it is sometimes difiicult to
secure complete combustion by using a single-spark plug. If the
combustion is not rapid the efiiciency of the engine will be reduced
proportionately. The compressed charge in the cylinder does not
ignite all at once or instantaneously, as many assume, but it is
the strata of gas nearest the plug which is ignited first. This
in turn sets fire to consecutive layers of the charge until the
entire mass is aflame. One may compare the combustion of gas
in the gas-engine cylinder to the phenomena which obtains when
a heavy object is thrown into a pool of still water. First a small
circle is seen at the point where the object has passed into the
water, this circle in turn inducing other and larger circles until
the whole surface of the pool has been agitated from the one
central point. The method of igniting the gas is very similar
as the spark ignites the circle of gas immediately adjacent to the
sparking point, and this circle in turn ignites- a little larger one
concentric with it. The second circle of flame sets flre to more

112 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

of the gas, and finally the entire contents of the combiistion cham-
ber are burning.

While ordinarily combustion is sufficiently rapid with a single
plug so that the proper explosion is obtained at moderate engine
if the engine is working fast and the cylinders are of

Fig. 51. — Doulile Pole Spark Flag and Method of Applying It to Obtain
Two Sparks In Cylinder.

large capacity, more power may be obtained by setting fire to the
mixture at two different points instead of but one. This may
be accomplished by using two sparking plugs in the cylinder
instead of one, and experiments have shown that it is possible to
gain from twenty-five to thirty per cent, in motor power at high
.speed with two-spark plugs, because the combustion of the gas is
accelerated by igniting the gas simultaneously in two places. To

Double Pole Spark Plugs 113

fit a double-spark system successfully, one of the plugs must be
a double pole member to which the high-tension current is first
delivered, while the other may be one of ordinary construction.

A typical double-pole plug is shown in section at Fig. 54, A.
In this member two concentric electrodes are used, these being
well insulated from each other. One of these is composed of the
usual form passing through the center of the insulating bushing,
while the other is a 'metal tube surrounding the tube of insulating
material which is wound around the center wire. The current
enters ifee-^lug through the terminal at the top in the usual
manner, but it does nol^ go to the ground because the sparking
points are insulated from the steel body of the plug which screws
into the cylinder. After the current ias jumped the gap be-
tween the sparking head and the point, it flows back to the ter-
minal plate at the top, from which it is conducted to the insulated
terminal of the usual type plug.

Themelhod of wirii^ these plugs is shown at Fig. 54, B. The
secondary wire from the coil or magneto is attached to the central
terminal of the double-pole plug, and another cable is attached to
the insulated terminal plate below it and to the terminal of the
regular type plug. One is installed over the inlet valve, the other
over the exhaust valve, if the system is fitted to a T head cylinder.
Before the current can return to the source it must jump the gap
between the points of the double-pole plug as well as those of
the ordinary plug, which is grounded because it is screwed into
the cylinder. "When a magneto of the high-tension type furnishes
the current a double distributor is sometimes fitted, which will
permit one to use two ordinary single-pole plugs instead of the
unconventional double-pole member. Each of the plugs is joined
to an individual distributor, and as but one primary contact
breaker or timer is used to determine the time of sparking at
both plugs, the ignition is properly synchronized and the sparks
occur simultaneously.

Sometimes a spark plug of the special form shown at Fig. 53, C,
is used in connection with a regular spark plug of the form shown
at A, the special plug being placed first in the circuit and joined
to the regular plug by a length of wire bridging the free termir

114 Starting J Lighting and Ignition Systems

of the plug at C with that on top of the insulator of the regular
pattern. As the plugs are in series, the current must jump the
gap of both plugs and thus two sparks occur, which is said to
increase power by accelerating the rate of flame propagation* which
of course results in more energeti^c ignition. The insulator is
shaped to form a double V, the sides being slightly concave and

High Tension Wtrea
Induction Coil—

Primarg Circuit

Dry Coils "^^ V-JJ^^^^"***^ Storage Battery

Fig. 55. — ^Assembly View of Four Cylinder Battery Ignition Group,

Showing Devices and Methods of Wiring.

larger than the center V, which ends in a sharp point. This con-
struction is said to cause the point to be self-cleaning by the ex-
plosion. Two electrodes pass through the insulating member in-
stead of one, these being insulated from each other and the plug
body as well. The high tension current enters one terminal and
passes down one of the electrodes, jumps the air gap, and can
only reach the ground if the terminal connected to the second
electrode is in electrical connection with the terminal of an ordi-

Typical Battery Ignition System

115

nary form of spark plug or if it is bridged down to the plug body
by the keeper B. When this keeper is in place, as indicated, the
plug will act the same as a single electrode sparker. When the
plug is to be used for double ignition in connection with one of
the regular forms, the keeper B should be removed and a short

High Uneton WItea

Colt

Distributor

Storago Battery to Coit^^

Dry Cell Battery to Oolt^^

Tig. 56. — ^Method of Employing Single Vibrator Ooil to Fire Four Cylin-
ders when Secondary Current is Distributed Instead of Battery
Energy.

wire used to join the terminal to which the keeper was attached
to the terminal of the regular pattern spark plug.

Typical Battery Ignition Systems. — The components of typi-
cal battery ignition systems may be easily determined by studying
the illustrations given at Figs. 55, 56 and 57. The four-cylinder
ignition group shown at Pig. 55 depicts the conventional method
of wiring two sets of batteries, a four-point timer or commutator^
and a four-unit induction coil together. It will be seen that eight
dry cells are wired together in series and are used as an auxiliary

116 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

to a six-volt or three-cell storage battery. The negative terminals
of the storage battery and dry cell set are coupled together by a
fihort length of wire and are grounded by being attached to the
engine base by a suitable conductor. The positive terminals are
coupled to the two binding posts under the switch or the coil.
The four points of the commutator are attached to the different
units of the coil while the secondary wires run from the high-

Switch

6 Side View

Con

Firing Order 1,2,3,6,5,4

P'^

Storage Battery

bry Cells

Hi!

^Qround"^

iiiJLjii

irV I

lijn

IHi

Cylinder Pair"

Fig. 57. — ^Distributor and Coil Ignition Group for Six GyUnder Motor,
Showing Order of Firing and Wiring Connections.

tension terminals on the bottom of the coil to the spark plugs in
the cylinders. If the switch lever is placed on one contact button,
the current is obtained from the dry cells. If it is swung over
to the other side, electricity from the storage battery is utilised!
A typical high-tension distributor system is shown at Fig. 56.
Two sources of primary current are provided, one being a six-cell,
dry battery, the other a three-cell, or six-volt storage battery.
The battery connections are similar to those previously shown and
'^ut a single unit coil is needed to fire all cylinders. A single

Battery Igmtion Systems 117

primary wire is attached to the commutator section of the dis-
tributor. The secondary wire from the induction coil is joined
to tlie distributing terminal on the top of the distributor, from
which it is delivered to the collecting terminals spaced on quar-
ters around the outer periphery of the distributor casing by means

Fig. B8. — Complete Ford Uagneto Ignition System, & DisUnctlve M«tIiod

Found Only on This Cai.

of a central distributing segment. Suitable conductors connect
the distributor with the spark plugs in the cylinders.

The illustration at Fig. 57 is practically the same as that at
Fig. 56, except that a distributor capable of firing a six-cylinder
engine is used. If individual unit coils were to be employed, as is
the ease at Fig. 55, the coil box would contain six units and the

118 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

primary timer would have six contact points. The wiring would
be considerably more complicated than the system outlined.

Master Vibrator Ignition Systems. — Practically the only car
at the present time using the individual unit system of ignition is
the Ford, the complete wiring diagram of which is clearly shown
at Fig. 58, in the relation the parts actually occupy in the car.
It will be observed that the induction coil has ten terminals, six
of these being for the primary circuit and four for the secondary
wires. The upper terminals of the coil are primary and run to
the timer segments. The four secondary terminals are connected
to the spark plugs as indicated, while the remaining two terminals,
which are at the bottom of the coil, are joined to the magneto
terminal and to the battery respectively. In the system outlined
each coil has a separate vibrator.

Many Ford cars have been supplied with what is known as a
master vibrator, which is a magnetic circuit breaker intended to
perform that function for all of the coils. It is claimed that a de-
vice of this character produces synchronism of the ignition spark,
which is not possible to obtain where four separate vibrators are
used on account of some of these being tuned up faster than the
others. It is contended that this makes a smoother-running engine
and one delivering more power. A master vibrator unit that en-
joys wide sale is of K-W manufacture and is designed especially for
use with Ford cars. The method of wiring the vibi*ator is clearly
outlined in the upper left hand corner at Fig. 59. As the vibra-
tor unit carries a switch on its face, it has three terminals at the
bottom, the center one of which is connected to one of the regular
terminals of the spark coil, leaving the other one blank. One of
the outside terminals of the master vibrator is coupled to the mag-
neto, the other to a battery. The switcl; of the main coil is used
only on one contact button, and may be left on that button, as the
battery or magneto may be thrown in circuit at will by the switch
on the master vibrator coil. It is necessary to short circuit the
regular vibrators in order to put them out of commission. This
is done by running a wire between the vibrator springs and the
bridge carrying one of the contact points, as shown at the bottom of
Fig. 59. Another method of short circuiting the vibrator is to

Master Vibrator Ignition Systems

110

keep the points in contact by wedging a piece of wood, rubber or
cardboard under the vibrator spring between the core of the coil
and the vibrator. Keeping the points in contact in this manner is
equivalent to short circuiting them by the wire Bhunt.

When but one vibrator is used the contact points must be made
larger than those on the individual vibrators, because it-does four
times as much work. The construction of the K-W vibrator is

Bhowliw, boB to BhoR Oinult SftA Ooll TlbntDn

Fig. 59. — Bow Uast«r Vibratoi Is Used.

clearly shown, and in view of the instructions that will be given
for the care and adjustment of these devices it is not neces-
sary to describe its construction. The instructions given for
adjusting the vibrator are very simple, it being merely neces-
sary to observe if there is a apace of %4 inch between the plat-
inum contact points when the vibrator spring is held down
firmly on the iron core. A gauge made of ^4 inch thick steel may
be placed between the contact points until the adjusting screw ia
■crewed down to a point where the gai^e can be pulled out with-

120 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

out much trouble. This will give the proper distance for the arma-
ture or bottom spring to travel.

Non-vibrator Distributor Systems. — Because of the almost uni-
versal employment of electricity for lighting and starting systems,
the battery ignition system has been improved materially inasmuch
as the storage battery supplying the current is constantly charged
by a generator. A number of systems has been devised, these
operating on two different principles, the open circuit, such as the
Atwater-Kent, previously described, and the closed circuit. An
example of the close circuit system is shown at C, Fig. 60, and
is of Connecticut design, the complete ignition system consisting
of a combined timer and high tension distributor, a separate in-
duction coil and a switch. The system is distinctive in that the
timer is so constructed that the primary circuit of the coil is
permitted to become thoroughly saturated with electricity before
the points separate, with a result that a spark of maximum in-
tensity is produced. The action is very much the same as that
of a magneto on account of the saturation of the winding. An-
other feature is the incorporation with the switch of a thermo-
statically operated electro-magnetic device which automatically
breaks the connection between the battery and the coil should the
switch be left on with the motor idle.

Tlie contact breaker mechanism consists of an arm A carrying
one contact, a stationary block B carrying the other contact, a
fiber roller R which is carried by the arm A and operated by points
on the cam C, which is mounted on the driving shaft. Normally
the contacts are held together under the action of a light spring.
As the four cams, which in touching the roller R raise the arm and
separate the contacts, are 90 degrees for a four-cylinder motor,
the period of saturation of the coil or the length of time the cur-
rent flows through it to the battery is sufficiently long so that
when the points have separated the current which has '* piled *'
up induces an intensely hot spark at the plugs. This is an ad-
vantage inasmuch as it insures prompt starting and regular ignition
at low engine speed as well as providing positive ignition at high
engine speed.

The thermostatic circuit breaking mechanism is very simple.

Battery Ignition Systems

122 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

This consists of the thermostat T, which heats when the current
passes through it for from thirty seconds to four minutes without
interruption, and thus is bent downward, making contact with the
contact L. This completes an electrical circuit which energizes
the magnets M, causing the arm K to operate like the clapper in
an electric bell. This arm strikes against the plate, which releases
whichever of the two buttons in the switch may be depressed.

As will be observed, the transformer coil provided has five
terminals. One of these is connected directly with the ground,
the other leac*^ to the central secondary distributing brush of
the timer-distributor. Of the three primary leads, one goes to the
switch, one to the wire leading from the storage battery to the
timer, and one directly to a terminal on the timer. The switch
is provided with three buttons, the one marked B being depressed
to start the engine, as the ignition current is then drawn from the
storage battery. After the engine has been started the button
marked M is pressed in, this taking the current directly from the
generator. To interrupt ignition the button **off'' is pressed in,
this releasing whichever of the buttons, B or M, is depressed. Four
wires run from the distributor section of the igniter to the spark
plug.

The 1916 Connecticut automatic ignition system, shown at Fig.
Gl, is considerably simplified and more compact than earlier types.
The igniter housing now has a rounded top for the reception of
the leads to the spark plugs, this form being an improvement over
the flat top in that it provides no lodging place for moisture and
dust, etc. At the same time, the housing which carries the dis-
tributor segments has been made lighter. The distributor arm
also has been lightened and made more compact. Other improve-
ments include the adoption of a new type of compression lock
washer holding the cover plate over the breaker mechanism in
place, and a new type of inclosed ball bearing at the lower end
of the driving shaft. In principle, the new type of switch, which
is in addition to the standard round type, is exactly like the older
one except that it is mounted entirely behind the dash with noth-
ing in view except a plate and four switch buttons. One of these
serves to make the ignition circuit and another to break it. A

Battery Ignition Systems 123

third button switches on head and tail lamp and the fourth button
dims the head lamps for city driving. Any combination of light-
ing switches can be incorporated in the switch plate.

TMtBVfOSTAT

Fig. 61, — ^ninstnttloiis Sbowlng Conatructlou of 1916 Connecticut Ignition
Systein Timers and TbeimostaticBlly Contrtdled Swltcli.

When the ignition switch is closed, current drawn from the
storage battery is caused to pass through a tiny thermostat on
its way to the coil and thence to the distributor, and finally to the

124 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

plugs. If the motor is not started within a short time after the
switch is closed — the length of time is easily adjustable — the ther-
mostat closes a circuit through a tiny electric buzzer operating a
releasing hammer which automatically opens the ignition circuit
and thus prevents the battery draining itself. Obviously, if the
motor is stalled and not again started, the thermostat will open
the circuit in the same
way. Thus, it is impos-
sible for the motor to
stand idle for more than
a minute or so with the
ignition switch closed.
When the motor is run-
ning the amount of cur-
rent passing through
the thermostat is so
small that it is negligi-
ble and has no effect.

The Remy system also
operates on the closed
circuit principle and is

Tig. 62.-EMily IgnlUon Unit Designed to Fit ^f""™ «* -*-■ ^'g- ^^' '" *
Standard Magneto Base. form adapted for six-

cylinder engine igni-
tion. The transformer coil is of the three terminal type,
one secondary going to the central secondary distributing brush
of the timer while one primary is joined to the primary contact
terminal of the timer portion of the igniter. The remaining coil
terminal is joined to the switch. One of the poles of the storage
battery and one of the series connected dry cell batteries are
grounded, while from the other two the wires run to the switch
contacts. The current may thus be derived either from the dry
cell batteries for emergency or from the storage battery for regular
ignition purposes. The construction of the timer which incor-
porates the breaker mechanism is clearly shown. The movable
platinum contact point is carried by the arm A, which fulcrums
on the bearing S, and which has a piece of hard steel F riveted

Battery Ignition Systems 125

to it to act as a cam rider. The earn C is of hexagonal form,
having six points which separate the contacts when they ride
over the shoe F attached to the arm A. The fixed platinum con-
tact point B is so arranged that it may be adjusted by moving
in or out as conditions demand. It is to this member that the
primary terminal of the coil is connected.

A typical combined timer distributor known as the Halladay
is shown at B, Fig. 60, The make and break mechanism is very

simple in design, as is the distributing mechanism. The contact
between the platinum points is established by a four point cam.
The secondary current is distributed from the central terminal to
the four distributing terminals by a carbon brush very- mueh simi-
lar in design to that employed in a high tension magneto. This
operates on the open circuit principle. A complete ignition unit
consisting of induction coil and timer-distributor of Remy design,
so mounted that it will fit the standard magneto base and arranged
so it can be driven in the same manner, is shown at Fig. 62. The
wiring diagram of this igniter is outlined at Fig. 63. The indue-

126 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

tion coil and eonstruetioii of distributor for six-cylinder engine igni-
tion are depicted at Pig, 64. The Remy ignition system is some-
times incorporated in a combined ignition-generator, as shown in
wiring diagram at Fig. 65.

Features of Low-Tension Ignition STStem. — Though the low-
tension ignition system is seldom used at the present time, a brief
description of the method of producing a make-and-break spark
is desirable so the reader may gain a thorough knowledge of the

Fig, 64.— Extenul View of R«mr Induction Coll at Iieft and Farta of
TIiii«r-DIstiitmti»r at Bight.

methods of ignition in vogue. In order to obtain a spark in the
cylinder of any engine, it is necessary that there be a break in
the circuit and that this break or interruption be inside of the
combustion chamber. The ^iter plate used is different in con-
struction from the spark plug forming part of the high-tension
system, as the break is made by moving contacts which serve to
time the spark as well as produce it.

A typical igniter is shown at A and B, Fig. 66. It consists of

Low Tension Ignition System

127

a drop-forged plate approximately triangular in form which has
a conical ground surface to fit a corresponding female member in
the combustion chamber. It is secured by three bolts to a corner
of the cylinder close to the inlet valve so the contact points will
be traversed by the gases entering from the carburetor. As shown
at B, the fixed contact point is called the anvil, while the movable

~VNAr-

jTMAcr aMTmnr

MiTwi swrrcH

Fig. 65. — ^Wiring Diagram Showiiig Method of Connecting Bemy Ignition

Generator in Frimaxy Circuit.

or rocking member is called the hammer. The anvil is insulated
from the igniter plate by a bushing of mica or lava, and the
hammer alternately makes and breaks contact with the anvil.

The method of actuating the hammer by a rocker arm is clearly
shown at ^ig. 67, B. The rocker arm H is in the form of a short
lever ending in a slotted opening which is connected to the top
of the vertical lifter rod T. This is actuated by a cam on. the
inlet valve cam shaft C, which raises the plunger in the guide

128 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

bushing. When the lifter rod movea upward the contact point
on the hammer inside of the cylinder comes into contact with the
platinum point on the anvil and closes the circuit. When the
igniter cam reaches the proper point for igniting the charge the
lifter rod T falls and as the action is quickened by a spring, S, 1,
at the hottom of the
lifter rod the ham-
mer arm is separated
from the contact
point on the anvil
and a spark takes
place as the points
are pulled apart.

The coil used when
batteries are em-
ployed to furnish the
current is a simple
form. It is a wind-
ing of comparatively
coarse wire around
a core composed of a
bundle of soft iron
wire. The battery
current is intensified
to ft certain extent'
by the self-induction
of one layer of wire
upon the others, and
when contact is brok-
en a brilliant spark
occurs between the
points of the igniter plate. Batteries are seldom used for regular
service ,on the low-tension system because the demands are too severe.
One of the advantages of this system is that the wiring is ex-
tremely simple, as will be seen by consiilting the diagram of the
low-tension ignition system illustrated at Fig. 67, A. In this both
a low-tension magneto and set of batteries are provided, the former

rig. 66. — Coustructlon of Iiocomo^ile IiOw
TeuBloa Ignltei Plate.

LiOW Tension Ignition System

129

being used for regular ignition while the latter are carried for
emergency service. A simple form of magneto will serve any num-
ber of cylinders because the insulated terminals of the igniters are
joined together by a simple conductor or bus bar. *A wire from
the magneto terminal is joined to one side of the switch, while the
other side of the switch is coupled to the coil which is carried in

Fig. 67. — ^Diagram Showing Method of Operating Locomobile Low Tension

Igniter.

the battery box. A short wire connects the top of the switch
lever with the bus bar. If the switch lever is swung to the left,
the magneto produces the current for the igniters, and if the
switch lever is placed on the button at the right, the current,
supply is taken from the batteries. The dry cells are joined
together in series connection, one pole being joined to a coil ter-
minal, the other being grounded. The coil and the igniter plates
are in series with the batteries and the current is returned to the

130 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

ground through the rocker arm, which is a metallic contact with
the igniter plate.

The disadvantage which has militated against the general use of
the make-and-bVeak system of ignition is that it is very difficult to
obtain synchronized spark after the mechanism has become worn,
and unless the igniter plates are kept in perfect adjustment the
spark time will vary and the efficiency of the engine will be
lowered. As the moving electrodes operate under extremely disad-
vantageous conditions it is difficult to prevent rapid wear of the
rocker arm bearing at the igniter plate and consequent leakage of
gas results. Owing to the multiplicity of joints in the operating
mechanism it is difficult to secure regular action without backlash
or lost motion.

With a high-tension system there are no moving parts inside of
the cylinder and it is not difficult to maintain a tight joint between
the plug body and the cylinder head. The timer mechanism which
is employed when batteries and coils are utilized to furnish the cur-
rent is a comparatively simple device which is not liable to wear be-
cause it can be easily oiled and has a regular rotating movement
which can operate without getting out of time much better than
the reciprocating parts of the make-and-break mechanism. When
a direct high-tension magneto is used the system is not much more
' complicated as far as wiring is concerned than a low-tension group,
and as the ignition is more reliable it is not strange that jump
spark or high-tension ignition is almost generally used in automo-
bile practice.

Double and Triple Ignition Methods. — There are many cars
in operation to-day which utilize double and triple ignition sys-
tems. On some of these it is possible to have three practically in-
dependent means of supplying the ignition spark. As will be ap-
parent, the wiring of a triple ignition system is apt to be much
more complex than that of the simpler methods now in vogue. In
the ignition system outlined at Fig. 68, which has been used on a
six cylinder car, it will be evident that in addition to the usual
Bosch D-6 dual magneto an entirely independent individual spark
coil and battery timer system is included. Two sets of plugs are
used, one serving both magneto distributor systems, while the other

Double and Triple Ignition Systems 181

182 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

Fig. 69. — ^wiring DUgrani of DonUe Ignition System at A, of Triple
Ignition SfBtem At B, Botli for Foot Cylinder Englnee.

is connected to the individual coil units. The connections of the
magneto system are no different than in the regular dual system
previously described, while those of the battery and coil may be
easily determined by a close study of the diagram. The primary
timer has six contacts, one of which serves each ignition coil. As
the firing order of this engine is 1-5-3-6-2-4, the wires from the
timer must run to the individual unit coils in the same order so
as to have the cylinders fire in proper sequence. For example,
the wire from the contact No. 1 of the timer runs to coil No. 1,

Double and Triple Ignition Systems

133

next in order is contact No. 5, which is wired to coil unit No. 5.
Following this comes timer contact No. 3, which supplies current
to coil No. 3. While the individual spark coils are connected in
order, i.e., coil No. 1 is joined to spark plug and cylinder No. 1, coil

7 4 3 2

MagajBto^

Switch

DryGelt
Battery

.Storage
Pattern

Fig. 70. — Practical Application of Double Ignition System to Four Cy^-

der Power Plant.

No. 2 to spark plug and cylinder No. 2, and so on the timer con-
tact must be numbered according to the firing order. It will be
apparent that two sources of ignition current are provided for the
battery and coil systems, one being a storage battery, the other a
set of dry cells.

184 Starting^ Lighting and Ignition Systems

A double ignition system in which a true high tension magneto
is used and a four unit vibrator coil and four point timer is shown
at A, Fig. 69. This ignition system is for a four-cylinder motor
having a firing order of 1-3-4-2. At B, Fig, 69, a triple igni-
tion system for a four-cylinder engine is shown, this being prac-
tically the same as that outlined at Fig. 68 except that the wir-
ing diagram is somewhat simpler owing to the lesser number of
cylinders. The advantage of a double ignition system is that
one can determine if irregular engine operation is due to the igni-
tion system or not very easily by running the engine first on one
system, then on the other. If the engine runs as it should on the
battery system after it has been misfiring on the magneto it is
reasonable to assume that some portion of the magneto system is
not functioning properly. If the engine runs well on the magneto,
but not on the battery, the trouble may be ascribed to failure in
the chemical current producer or its auxiliary devices. On the
other hand, if the engine does not run well on either ignition
systems, it is fair to assume that the trouble is not due to faulty
ignition. A non-technical illustration of one of the double igni-
tion systems that were prominent before the general adoption of
self-starters and when the high-tension magneto was not yet ac-
cepted without suspicion is shown at Fig. 70.

Battery Ignition System Troubles. — Ignition troubles are usu-
ally evidenced by irregular engine action. The motor will not run
regularly nor will the explosions follow in even sequence. There
may be one cylinder of a multiple cylinder motor that will not
function at all, in which case the trouble is purely local, whereas
if all the cylinders run irregularly there is some main condition
outside of the engine itself that is causing the trouble. The first
point to examine is the source of current. Full instructions for
the care and repair of storage batteries are given in following pages
so we will first consider the simple primary or dry cells. It will
be observed that a dry cell is very simple in construction and that
nothing is apt to occur that wiU reduce its capacity except diminu-
tion in the strength of the electrolyte or eating away of the zinc
can by chemical action. The elements in a dry cell are usually
combined in such proportions that about the time the electrolyte

Battery Ignition System Troubles 135

is ezhausted, the zinc can will also have outlived its usefulness.
It is much cheaper to replace dry cells with new ones than to
attempt to repair the exhausted ones.

Evaporation of the electrolyte is the main cause of deteriora-
tion of dry cells as the internal resistance of the cell increases when

Fig. 71. — View at A, Showing Internal Construction of Diy Cell Battery.
B — Uethod of Testing Dry Cells wltlt Amperemeter.

the moisture evaporates. It is said that dry cells will depreciate
even when not in use, so it is important for the repairman to buy
these only as needed and not to keep a large stock on hand. In
order to test the capacity of a dry cell an amperemeter is used as
indicated at Fig. 71, B, Amperemeters are made in a variety of
forms, some being combined with volt meters. The combination
instrument is the best form for the repairman to use as the volts

186 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

scale ean be employed for testing storage batteries -while the am-
pere scale may be utilized in determining the strength of dry
. cells, A fully charged, fresh dry ceU should show a current
output of from twenty to twenty-five amperes. If the cell indi-
cates below six or seven amperes, it should be discarded as it is
apt to be exhausted to such a point that it will not furnish cur-
rent enough to insure energetic or reliable ignition. Dry cells

Fig. 72. — Slurwlng Crastmctioii of Stotage Batterr Plates. Qilds at
lAlt of UQatration are Not Filled wltli Actlro Material In Order to
Oleuly SLOW Skeleton of Plate.

should always be stored in a cool and dry place, so that the elec-
frolyte will not evaporate. If moisture is given an opportunity
to collect on the top of the pitch seal it will allow a gradual loss
of current due to short circuiting the cells. In applying an am-
peremeter, care should be taken to always connect the positive
terminal marked with a plus sign against the carbon terminal. In
the indicating meter shown at B, it is necessary to use only one
contact point which is pressed against the screw passing through
the carbon rod. The case of the instrument is placed in contact

Storage Battery Troubles 137

with the zinc terminal to complete the circuit. A flexible wire
is usually included in order to test the amperage of a group of
cells should this be thought necessary. When dry cells are used
for automobile ignition, they should be carefully packed in a box
made of non-conducting material, such as wood, and securely cov-
ered so there will be no chance for water to enter the container.
If placed in a sheet metal case, care should be taken to line the box
with insulating material and also to pack .the cells tightly so they
cannot shake around. The best practice is to use wedges or blocks
of wood which are driven in between the cells to keep them apart.
In no case should a dry cell be placed directly in a steel box, as
the binding posts on the zincs might come in contact with the
walls of the box and tend to short circuit the cells, producing
rapid depreciation. A battery box should always be placed at a
point where it is not apt to be drenched with water when the
car is washed or should be watertight if exposed.

Storage Battery Defects. — The subject of storage battery
maintenance was thoroughly covered in a paper read by H. M.
Beck before the S. A. E. and published in the transactions of
the society. Some extracts from this are reproduced in connec-
tion with notes made by the writer and with excerpts from in-
struction books of battery manufacturers in order to enable the
reader to secure a thorough grasp of this important subject with-
out consulting a mass of literature. Endeavor has been made to
simplify the technical points involved and to make the exposition
as brief as possible without slighting any essential points. In
view of the general adoption of motor starting and lighting sys-
tems on all modern automobiles, the repairman or motorist must
pay more attention to the electrical apparatus than formerly
needed when the simple magneto ignition system was the only
electrical part of the automobile. The storage battery is one of
the most important parts of the modern electrical systems and
all up-to-date repairmen must understand its maintenance and
charging in order to care for cars of recent manufacture intelli-
gently.

A storage battery, from an elementary standpoint, consists of
two or more plates, positive and negative, insulated from each

138 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

other and submerged in a jar of dilute sulphuric acid. The plates
consist of finely divided lead, known as the active material, held
in grids which serve both as supports and as conductors for the
active material as at l^\g. 72. The active material being finely
divided, offers an enormous surface to the eleetrolyt* and thus

Fig. 73.— Fait SecUonal View, Showing ConBtrnctioii of Exide Startlug
and Lighting Battery.

electi-o-chemical action can take place easily and quickly. Tvro
plat i such as described, would have no potential difference, the
active material of each being the same. If, however, current from
kin outside source is passed between them, one, the positive, will be-
come oxidized, while the other remains as before, pure lead. This

Storage Battery Maintenance 189

combination will be found to have a potential diflferende of about
two volts, and if connected through an external circuit, current
will flow.

During discharge, the oxidized plate loses its oxygen and both
plates will become sulphated until, if the discharge is carried far
enough, both plates will again become chemically alike, the active
material consisting of lead sulphate.. On again charging, the
sulphate is driven out of both plates and the positive plate oxi-
dized and this cycle can be repeated as often as desired until the
plates are worn out. Thus charging and discharging simply re-
sult in a chemical change in the active material and electrolyte,
and the potential difference between the plates and capacity is
due to this change.

In taking care of a storage battery, there are four points
which are of the first importance:

First — The battery must be charged properly.

Second — The battery must not be overdischarged.

Third — Short circuits between the plates or from sediment
under them, must be prevented.

Fourth — The plates must be kept covered with electrolyte and
only water of the proper purity used for replacing evaporation.

In the event of electrical trouble which may be ascribed to
weak source of current, first test the battery, using a low reading
voltmeter. Small pocket voltmeters can be purchased for a few
dollars and will be found , a great convenience. Cells may be
tested individually and as a battery. The proper time to take
a reading of a storage battery is immediately upon stopping or
while the engine is running. A more definite determination can
be made than after the battery has been idle for a few hours and
has recuperated more or less. A single cell should register more
than two volts when fully charged, and the approximate energy
of a three-cell battery should be about 6.5 volts. If the voltage
is below 6 volts the batteries should be recharged and the specific
gravity of the electrolyte brought up to the required point. If
the liquid is very low in the cell new electrolyte should be added.
To make this fluid add about one part of chemically pure sul-
phuric acid to about four parts of distilled water, and add more

140 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

water or acid to obtain the required specific gravity, which is
determined by a hydrometer. According to some authorities the
hydrometer test should show the specific gravity of the electrolyte
as about 1.208 or 25 degrees Baum6 when first prepared for in-
troduction in the cell, and about 1.306 or 34 degrees Baum6 when
the cell is charged.

The appended conversion formula and table of equivalents
will be found of value in changing the reading of a hydrometer,
or acidometer, from terms of specific gravity to the Baum6 scale,

or vice versa.

145

Sp. Gr. = at 60*' F.

145 — Baum6 degrees

The following table gives the corresponding specific gravities
and Baume degrees:

BauTn6

Specific Gravity

Baum6

Specific Gravity

1.000

1.141

1.006

1.150

1.014

1.160

1.021

1.169

1.028

1.178

1.035

1.188

1.043

1.198

1.050

1.208

1.058

1.218

1.066

1.228

1.074

1.239

1.082

1.250

1.090

1.260

1.098

1.271

1.106

1.283

1.115

1.294

1.124

34 .

1.306

1.132

1.318

Either voltage or gravity readings alone could be used, but
ds both have advantages in certain cases, and disadvantages in
others, it is advisable to use each for the purpose for which it

Charging Storage Batteries 141

is best fitted, the one serving as a check on the other. Voltage
has the great disadvantage in that it is dependent upon the rate
of current flowing. Open circuit readings are of no value, as'a
cell reads almost the same discharged as it does charged. On the
other hand, a voltmeter is a very easy instrument to read and
may be located wherever desirable. Specific gravity readings are
almost independent of the current flowing, but the hydrometer
is diflScult to read, not very sensitive and the readings must be
taken directly at the cells.

Charging the Storage Battery. — Great care should be used
in charging and the charging rates given by the various manu-
facturers should be followed whenever possible. It is essential
that the positive wire carrying the charging current be connected
with the positive plates of the battery. The positive pole of a
cell is usually indicated by a plus sign or by the letter **P." In
case of doubt always ascertain the proper polarity of the termi-
nals before charging. This is done by immersing the ends in
acidulated water, about an inch apart. The one around which
the more bubbles collect is the negative, and should be connected
with negative pole of the battery. If a cell is not connected prop-
erly it will be ruined. A battery always should be charged, if
possible, at a low charging rate, because it will overheat if ener-
gized too rapidly. The normal temperature is between 70 and
90 degrees Fahrerlieit. When the battery is fully charged the
solution assumes a milky white appearance and bubbles of gas are
seen rising to the surface of the electrolyte. All foreign matter
should be kept out of the batteries as any metallic substance find-
ing its way into the cell or between the terminals will short circuit
the cell and perhaps ruin it before its presence is known. The
terminals, the outside of the cell and all connections, should be
kept free from acid or moisture. A neglect of these essentials
means corrosion and loss of capacity by leakage. There is one
point in connection with the charge which should be especially
emphasized, namely, that the final voltage corresponding to a full
charge is not a fixed figure, but varies widely, depending upon
the charging rate, the temperature, the strength of the electrolyte,
and age of the battery. For this reason, charging to a fixed volt-

142 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

Fig. 74. — ApplUmcBB for Charging and Testing Storage Batteries.

age is unreliable and likely to result disastrously. The charge
should be continued until the voltage or gravity ceases rising, no
matter what actual figures are reached. Old cells at high tempera-

Charging Storage Batteries'

143

tures may not go above 2.4 volts per cell, whereas if very cold,
they have been known to run up to three volts.

The points to be especially emphasized in connection with the
charge are:

First — On regular chaises keep the rates as low as practical
and cut off the current promptly. It is preferable to cut off a

DISTILLED

WATER

AMPERE.MET

JBER
J6E

RECTIFIER (

S£^aa

^ BATTERY
\ /

■^

Fig. 76.— Stand Sliown at A Facilitates Filling CeUs with DistiUed Water.
Bectifler at B Cbarges Storage Batt«Ty from Alternating Cnrrent.

little too soon rather than to run too long where there is any
question.

Second — Overcharges must be given at stated intervals and
continued to a complete maximum. They should be cut off at the
proper point, but when in doubt it is safer to run too long, rather
than to cut off too soon.

Third — Do not limit the charge by fixed voltage.

144 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

Fourth — Keep the temperature within safe limits.

Fifth — Keep naked flames away from cells while charging as
the gas given off is inflammable. Always see that gas vents are
clear before charging.

The following table will undoubtedly be of value as a guide
to the proper charging rates of batteries of various ampere hour
capacities, the assumption being that these are all 3 cell batteries
that will show between 6.5 and 7.5 volts when fully charged.
While most manufacturers of batteries furnish instruction books,
these may be lost, so some compact reference is needed. The overall
dimensions of the batteries are given so the capacity may be deter-
mined even if the marks of identification on the name plate are
obliterated

TABLE OF CHARGING RATES

Elba Lighting Batteries

Type.

Normal
Charging Rates.
Amp. Required.

24-Hr.
Charg-
ing
Rate

Volts

per

Cell at

End of

Charge

24-Hr.

Rate

Volts of
Battery

at
End of
Charge

24-Hr.

Rate

Size of Battery Over all

No.

start

Finish

Length
in in.

Width
in in.

Height
in m.

of
Cells

EI^— 60-00

2Ji

9J4

ELB— 80-120

2J^

ELB— 100-150

2}^

7y2

ELB— 120-180

2J^

'TH

\6%

HSB— 60-90

^Yl

HSB— 80-120

^Yl

lOH

HSB— 100-150

12H

lOH

HSB— 120-180

2J^

lOJi

PA B— 120-180

7J^

w]4

73^

A battery may be charged from any source of direct current.
Garages, central stations, lighting plants, etc., can do the work,
vid in many instances where direct current is used for power

Storage Battery Restoration 145

purposes, a simple charging outfit is operated from the dynamo.
Where alternating current only is available, a rectifier which
changes alternating current to direct current may be installed and
the battery charged with no inconvenience and at comparatively
small cost. All of these methods will be considered in proper
sequence and typical charging outfits described.

Remedies for Loss of Battery Capacity. — When a battery
gives indication of lessened capacity it should be taken apart and
the trouble located. If the cell is full of electrolyte it may be
of too low specific gravity. The plates may be sulphated, due to
lack of proper charge or too long discharge. The cells may need
cleaning, a condition indicated by short capacity and a tendency
to overheat when charging. Sometimes a deposit of sediment on
the bottom of the cell will short circuit the plates. . If the specific
gravity is low and the plates have a whitish appearance, there
being little sediment in the cells, it is safe to assume that the
plates are sulphated. Sediment should be removed from the cells
and the plates rinsed in rain or distilled water to remove particles
of dirt or other adhering matter.

The rate at which the sediment collects, depends largely upon
the way a battery is handled and it is, therefore, necessary to
determine this rate for each individual case. A cell should be cut
out after say fifty charges, the depth of sediment measured and
the rate so obtained, used to determine the time when the battery
will need cleaning. As there is apt to be some variation in the
amount of sediment in different cells, and as the sediment is
thrown down more rapidly during the latter part of a period than
at the beginning, it is always advisable to allow at least one-
fourth inch clearance. If the ribs in the bottom of the jars are
1^ inches. high, figure on cleaning when the sediment reaches a
depth of lJ/2 inches. Before dismantling a battery for ** washing,''
if practical, have it fully charged. Otherwise, if the plates are
badly sulphated, they are likely to throw down considerable sedi-
ment on the charge after the cleaning is completed

There have been many complaints of lack of capacity from
batteries after washing. Almost without exception this is found
to be due to lack of a complete charge following the cleaning.

146 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

The plates are frequently in a sulphated condition when dis-
mantled and in any case are exposed to the air during the clean-
ing process, and thus lose more or less of their charge. When
re-assembled, they consequently need a very complete charge, and
in some cases the equivalent of the initial charge, and unless this
charge is given, the cells will not show capacity and will soon
give trouble again. This charge should be as complete as that de-
scribed elsewhere in connection with the initial charge.

** Flushing 'V or replacing evaporation in cells with electrolyte
instead of water, .is a most common mistake. The plates of a
storage battery must always be kept covered with electrolyte, but
the evaporation must be replaced with pure water only. There
seems to be a more or less general tendency to confuse the elec-
trolyte of a storage battery with that of a primary cell. The
latter becomes weakened as, the cell discharges and eventually re-
quires renewal. With the storage battery, however, this is not
the cose, at least to anything like the same degree, and unless acid
is actually lost through slopping or a broken jar, it should not
be necessary to add anything but water to the cells between clean-
ings. . Acid goes into the plates during discharge, but with proper
charging it will all be driven out again so that there will be practi-
cally no loss in the specific gravity readings, or at least one so
slight that it does not require adjustment between cleanings.
Thus, unless some of the electrolyte has actually been lost, if the
specific gravity readings are low, it is an indication that some-
thing is wrong, but the trouble is not that the readings are low,
but that something is causing them to be low, and the proper thing
to do is to remove the cause and not try to cover it up by doctor-
ing the indicator. The acid is in the cells and if it does not show
in the readings, it must be in the form of sulphate, and , the proper
thing to do is* to remove the cause of the sulphation if there is
one, and then with proper charging, drive the acid out of the
plates and the specific gravity readings will then come back to the
proper point. The too-frequent practice in such cases is to add
electrolyte to the cells in order to bring up the readings, which
as already explained, are only the indication of the trouble, and
this further aggravates the condition, until finally the plates be-

Storage Battery Maintenance 147

come so sulphated that lack of capacity causes a complaint. This
practice of adding electrolyte to cells instead of water, seems to
be coming more and more common.

// there is any doubt about the polarity of the plates when re-
assembling after cleaning it is well to note that the positive plate
is chocolate in color and the negative is gray.

When plates are sulphated, to restore them to their original
condition it is necessary that the battery be given a long, slow
charge at about a quarter or a third of the normal charging rate.
This should be continued until the electrolyte has reached the
proper specific gravity and the voltage has attained its maximum.

It should be understood that sulphating is a normal as well
as an abnormal process in the charge and discharge of storage
batteries, and the difference is in the degree, not the process. The
abnormal condition is that ordinarily referred to by the term. In
normal service sulphating does not reach the point where it is
difficult to reduce, but if carried too far, the condition becomes so
complete that it is difficult to reduce, and injury results. A very
crude method of illustrating the different degrees of sulphating is
to consider it as beginning in individual particles uniformly dis-
tributed throughout the active material. Each particle of sulphate
is then entirely surrounded by active material. The sulphate itself
is a non*conductor, but being surrounded by active material, the
current can reach it from aU sides and it is easily reduced. This
is normal sulphate. As the action goes further the particles of
sulphate become larger and join together and their outside con-
ducting surface is greatly reduced in comparison with their vol-
ume so that it becomes increasingly difficult to reduce them and
we have abnormal sulphate.

The general cure for sulphating is charging, so that a cell hav-
ing been mechanically restored, the electrical restoration consists
simply in the proper charging. Sulphate reduces slowly and on
this account it is a good plan to use a rather low current rate.
High rates cause excessive gassing, heating and do not hasten the
process appreciably, so that it is the safer as well as the more
efficient plan to go slowly. A good rate is about one-fifth normal.
The length of charge will depend upon the degree of sulphating

148 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

In one actual case it required three months' charging night and
day to complete the operation, but this was, of course, an excep-
tional one. ' The aim should be to continue until careful voltage
and gravity readings show no further increase for at least ten
hours and an absolute maximum has been reached. In serious
cases it may be advisable to even exceed this time in order to
make absolutely sure that all sulphate is reduced, and where there
is any question it is much safer to charge too long, rather than to
risk cutting off too soon. A partial charge is only a temporary
expedient, the cell still being sulphated will drop behind again.

Battery Charging Apparatus. — The apparatus to be used in
charging a storage battery depends upon the voltage and character
of the current available for that purpose. Where direct current
can be obtained the apparatus needed is very simple, consisting
merely of some form of resistance device to regulate the amperage
of the current allowed to flow through the battery. The internal
resistance of a storage battery is very low and if it were coupled
directly into a circuit without the interposition of additional re-
sistance an excessive amount of current would flow through the
battery and injure the plates. When an alternating current is
used it is necessary to change this to a uni-directional flow before
it can be passed through the battery. Alternating current is that
which flows first in one direction and immediately afterward in
the reverse direction. When used in charging storage batteries
some form of rectifier is essential. The rectifier may be a simple
form as shown at Fig. 74, A, which is intended to be coupled di-
rectly into a lighting circuit by screwing the plug attached to the
flexible cord in the lamp socket. A rotary converter set such as
shown at B, may also be used, in this the alternating current is
depended on to run an electric motor which drives the armature
of a direct current dynamo. The current to charge the battery
is taken from the dynamo, as it is suitable for the purpose, whereas
that flowing through the motor cannot be used directly.

The view at Pig. 74, C, shows a usual form of hydrometer-
syringe which is introduced into the vent hole of the storage bat-
tery such as shown at E and enough electrolyte drawn out of the

to determine its specific gravity. This is shown on the hydrom-

Storage Battery Maintenance 149

eter scale as indicated in the enlarged section at D. A very
useful appUance where considerable storage battery work is done
is shown at Fig. 75, A. This is a stand of simple form designed
to carry a carboy containing either acid, distilled water, or elec-
trolyte. In fact, it might be desirable to have three of these stands,
which are inexpensive, one for each of the liquids mentioned. In
many repair shops the replenishing of storage batteries is done in
a wasteful manner as the liquid is carried around in a bottle or
old water pitcher and poured from that container into the battery,
often without the use of a funnel. The chances of spilling are, of
course, greater than if the liquids were carefully handled and more
time than necessary is consumed in doing the work. The stand shown
is about 5 feet high and is fitted with castors so it may be easily
moved about the shop if necessary. For example, in taking care
of electric vehicle batteries it may be easier to move the darboy
to the battery than to remove the heavy battery from the auto-
mobile. The container for the liquid is placed on top of the stand
and the liquid is conveyed from it by a rubber tube. The rubber
tube is attached to a glass tube extending down nearly to the
bottom of the liquid. At the bottom of the rubber tube an ordi-
nary chemist's clip which controls the flow of liquid is placed. In
order to start a flow of liquid it is necessary to blow into a bent
glass vent tube which is also inserted into the stopper. Once the
rubber tube has become filled with liquid merely opening the clip
will allow the liquid to flow into the battery as desired.

In most communities the incandescent lighting circuit is used
for charging batteries on account of the voltage of the power
circuits being too high. The incandescent lighting circuit may be
any one of six forms. A direct current of either 110 or 220 volts
used over short distances, either 220 or 440 volts on three wire
circuits over long distances, alternating current at a constant
potential, usually 110 volts and in various polyphase systems. It
might be stated that in the majority of instances house and garage
lighting circuits furnish direct current of 110 volts. We will con-
sider the devices used with the alternating form, one of which is
shown at Fig. 75, B. This is known as the RoUinson electrolytic
rectifier which is based upon the following principles: When an

150 Starting^ Lighting and Ignition Systems

element of aluminum and a corresponding element or plate of iron
are submerged in a solution of certain salts, using these elements
as negative and positive terminals, respectively, the passage of an
electric current through the solution produces a chemical action
which forms hydroxide of aluminum. A film of hydroxide thus
formed on the aluminum element repels the current. The arrange-
ment of the cell will then permit current to pass through it in one
direction only, the film of chemical preventing it from passing in
the opposite direction. The result is that if an alternating cur-
rent is supplied to the cell a direct pulsating current can be ob-
tained from it. The outfits usually include a transformer for
reducing the line voltage to the lower voltages needed for battery
charging purposes. Regulation of the current is effected in the
simplest type by immersing the elements more or less in the solu-
tion in the jar. As complete instructions are furnished by the
manufacturers it will not be necessary to consider this form of
rectifier in detail.

One of the most commonly used rectifying means is the mercury
arc bulb. This device is a large glass tube of peculiar shape, as
shown at Figs. 76 and 77, which contains in the base a quantity of
mercury. ' On either side of this lower portion two arms of the glass
bulbs extend outwardly, these being formed at their extremities
into graphite terminals or anodes indicated as A and A-1, Fig. 77,
The current from the auto transformer is then attached one to each
side. The base forms the cathode or mercury terminal for the
negative wires. The theory of this action is somewhat complicated,
but may be explained simply without going too much into detail.
The interior of the tube is in a condition of partial vacuum and
while the mercury is in a state of excitation a vapor is supplied.
This condition can be kept up only as long as there is a current
flowing toward the negative. If the direction of the current be
reversed so that the formerly negative pole becomes a positive the
current ceases to flow, as in order to pass in the opposite direc-
tion it would require the formation of a new cathode element.
Therefore the flow is always toward one electrode which is kept
excited by it. A tube /)f this nature would cease to operate on
«Hernating current voltage after half a cycle if some means were

Mercury Rectifier Bulbs

Pig. 76. — ^Mercniy Rectifier BulbB and Methods of Wiringi to Cbarge
StOTUge Battery from Altem&tiiig Current Uain.

not provided to maintain a flow continuously toward the negative
electrode. In the General Electric rectifier tube there are two
anodes and one cathode. Each of the former is connected t© a
separate side of the alternating current supply and also through
reactances to one side of the load and the cathode to the other.

152 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

As the current alternates, first one anode and then the other be-
comes positive and there is a continuous flow toward the mercury-
cathode thence through the load (in this case the battery to be
charged) and back to the opposite side of the supply through a
reactance. At each reversal the latter discharges, thus maintaining

k.OJ&TX

no or 2

Auto

tartiiTol^esidtapce

IfeotifierBiife

Balteiy

^i|i|i|i|i|iH

Fig. 77. — Simplified Wiring Diagram, Showing Method of Using Bectifier

Bulb.

the arc until the voltage reaches the value required to maintain
the current against the counter E. M. F. and also reducing the
fluctuations in the direct current. In this way, a true continuous
flow is obtained with very small loss in transformation.

A small electrode connected to one side of the alternating cir-
cuit is used for starting the arc. A slight tilting of the tube makes

Current Rectifying Devices 158

a mercury bridge between the terminal and draws an are as soon
as the tube is turned to a vertical position. The ordinary form
used for vehicle batteries has a maximum current capacity of 30
amperes for charging the lead plate type and a larger form in-
tended for use with Edison batteries yields up to a limit of 50
amperes. Those for charging ignition batteries will pass 5 am-
peres for one to charge six cells and a larger one that will pass
10 amperes for from three to ten batteries. As is true of the electro-
lytic rectifier complete instructions are furnished by the manu-
facturer for their use.

The "Wagner device, which is shown at Fig. 74, A, operates
on a new principle and comprises a small two coil transformer to
reduce the line voltage to a low figure ; the rectifier proper which
consists of a vibrating armature in connection with an electro
magnet and a resistance to limit the flow of the charging current.
A meter is included as an integral part of the set for measuring
the current flow. All sets are sold for use with ignition or light-
ing batteries of low voltage with a lamp socket plug and attach-
ing cord, the idea being to utilize an ordinary lighting circuit of
110 volts A, C. The magnet and vibrating armature accomplish
the rectification of the current with little loss, the action after
connection to the battery which is to be charged proceeding auto-
matically. By a simple device, the current stoppage throws the
main contacts open so the partially charged battery cannot be
rapidly discharged. While the rectifiers are constructed to use
60 cycle, 110 volt alternating current they will work at all fre-
quencies from 57 to 63. The size made will pass three to five
amperes, the voltage being suflBcient to recharge a three cell battery.

When batteries are to be charged from a direct current it is
possible to use a rheostat to regulate the voltage at the terminals.
The construction of a rheostat is very simple as it consists only
of a group of high resistance coils of wire mounted in insulating
material and having suitable connections with segments on the
base plate upon which is mounted the operating arm that makes
the contact. According to the manner in which these are made
and wired a large resistance is introduced at first, gradually de-
creasing as the lever is moved over or it may operate in the re-

154 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

verse fashion, a large amount of enrrent being allowed to pass
at the first contact and less as the handle progresses across the
path. Rheostats shonld only be purchased after consulting a ca-
pable electrician as the required resistance must be figured out
from the voltage of the circuit to be used, the maximum battery

Swttcli

To "DiMct"
CacraatOnly

iiato2aoVoJu

Fig. 78. — ^How to Charge Storage Battery by Direct Current Tlirough

Simple Lamp Bank Besistance.

current, the charging rate in amperes and the number of cells to
be charged at one time.

By far the simplest method of charging storage batteries is
by interposing a lamp bank resistance instead of the rheostat.
These are easily made by any garage mechanic and are very satis-
factory for charging ignition or lighting batteries. Standard car-
bon lamps of the voltage of the circuit shown should be used and
the amperes needed for charging can be controlled by varying the
candle power and the number of lamps used. If the lamps are to
operate on 110 volt circuit, a 16 candle power carbon filament

Battery Charging Practice 155

lamp will permit one-half ampere to pass; a 32 candle power will
allow 1 ampere to pass. If it is desired, therefore, to pass three am-
peres through the battery, one could .use 3-32 candle power lamps,
or 6-16 candle power lamps. If the lamps are to burn on 220 volts
it should be remembered that when the voltage is doubled the
amperage is cut in half, therefore the 32 candle power, 220 volt
carbon filament bulbs will only pass half an ampere. The method
of wiring is very simple as may be readily ascertained by re-
ferring to Fig. 78. The line wires are attached to a fuse block
and then to a double knife switch. The switch and fuse block
are usually mounted on a panel of insulating material such as
slate or marble. One of the wires, the positive of the circuit, runs
from the switch directly to the positive terminal of the storage
battery. The negative wire from the switch passes to the lamp
bank resistance. The lamps are placed in parallel connection with
respect to each other but in series connection in respect to the
battery. When coupled in this manner the current must overcome
the combined resistance of the storage battery which is very low
and that of the lamps. This prevents the battery being charged
with current of too high voltage.

A complete commercial installation which has been used suc-
cessfully with a direct current of 110 volts pressure and which
has a capacity for charging 30-6 volt batteries simultaneously is
composed of two charging sets either of which may be employed
independently or both may be used at the same time. The method
of wiring is clearly shown at. Fig. 79. In this a three wire system
is employed for lighting. This consists of one positive wire and
two negative conductors, forming in reality two separate circuits
so that one half of the installation is on one wire, while the re-
mainder is on the other two. An upper branch is used merely
for illumination. On either half of the three wire double circuit
is placed a bank of lamps, these being in series with the batteries
but the lamps are in multiple with each other. The board at the
left has 9 sockets, that at the right 12 sockets. The number of
lamps placed in these and their candle power regulate the amount
of current in amperes that will pass through the battery. As we
have seen, battery manufacturers advise that certain minimum and

156 Starting, lAghting and Ignition Systems

maximum charging rates be used. AssnTning that the maximum
is 3 amperes, to pass a current of this value through the battery,
it will be necessary to screw in 6-16 candle power lamps which will
average 55 watts each, which means that at a pressure of 110 volts
they require a current strength of half ampere. If fitted with 16
candle power lamps the 12 socket lamp bank will pass 6 amperes,
and double this amount with lamps of twice the candle power.

Var Zlluainatioa-

OMtfglnc Wbras

a" Wvm* Bloelc

r DDfeft

CO cc

Charging Wlr<M

Fig. 79. — ^Ziamp Bank Besistance for Charging a Number of Storage

Batteries Simultaneously.

The meter installation shown between the charging boards is to
determine the amount of current passing through the storage bat-
tery and as it is a low reading instrument, a low resistance shunt
is interposed so that any overload will pass over the shunt instead
of through the instrument which is calibrated to measure currents
up to 30 amperes. With the small single blade knife switches in
circuit the current will not pass through the instrument, as it is
not advisable to include this in the circuit permanently, because
the passage of current through the windings may result in in-
jurious heating. To get a reading from either side the single blade

Features of Edison Cell 157

switch is thrown off and the double throw male member of switch
is placed in contact between the blades on the side of which a
reading is to be taken.
It will be seen that tJie
wires are crossed at
the right of the two-
way switch to cause
the current to flow
through the instru-
ment in the right di-
rection and also to
have the negative ter-
minal of each charging
board at the left. This
eliminates any con-
fusion and the ter-
minals are plainly
marked so it is not
possible to make a mis-
take when coupling
batteries. When more
than one battery or
set of cells is being
charged they are
wired in series, the
negative terminal of
one battery being
coupled to the positive
terminal of the neigh-
boring one. In con-
necting a battery to
the charging board the
negative wire should always be coupled to the negative terminal of
the battery and the positive wire to the corresponding battery
terminal.

Features of the Edison Cell. — The instructions given apply
only to batteries of the lead plate type and not to the Edison bat-

Fig. 80. — Sectional Tlew of Edison
Alkaline Storase Battery C«U.

158 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

tery, which is entirely different in construction. The Edison cell,
shown in section at Fig. 80, uses an electrolyte consisting of 21%
solution of potash in distilled water so that the electrolyte is alka-
line instead of acidulous. The positive plates consist of a series
of perforated steel tubes which are heavily nickel-plated and
which are filled with alternate layers of nickel hydroxide and pure
metallic nickel in very thin plates. The tube is drawn from a
perforated ribbon of steel, nickel-plated and has a spiral lapped
seam. After being filled with active material it is reenforced with
eight steel bands which prevent the tube expanding away from and
breaking contact with its contents. The negative plate consists of
a grid of cold rolled steel, also heavily nickel-plated, holding a
number of rectangular pockets filled with powdered iron oxide.
These pockets are also made up of finely perforated steel, nickel-
plated. After the pockets are filled they are inserted in the grid
and suDJected to considerable pressure between dies which corru-
gate the surfaces of the pockets and forces them into positive con-
tact with the grids. These elements are housed in a jar or con-
tainer made from cold rolled steel which is thoroughly welded at
the seams and heavily nickel-plated. The plates are assembled in
positive and negative groups by means of threaded steel rods pass-
ing through holes in one corner of the plates and insulating
washers. The terminal post is secured to the middle of the rod.
The complete element or plate assembly stands on hard rubber
bridges on the bottom of the can as at Fig. 81 and is kept out of
contact with the sides of the container by hard rubber spacers at-
tached to the end. The can cover is also of sheet steel and contains
fittings through which the electrodes pass, these being insulated
from the cover by bushings of insulating material. A combined
filling aperture ana vent plug is secured to the center of the cover
plate. For 6 volt ignition and lighting service it is necessary to
use 5 cells owing to the lesser voltage of the Edison batteries.
The average voltage during discharge is but 1:2 volts per cell and
is not as constant as is the case with a lead battery, the voltage of
which may be as high as 2.5 volts per cell.

An Edison 6.5 volt battery (Fig. 81) used for lighting or igni-
tion may be charged completely in ten hours. A feature of the

Features of Edison Cell

TiZf 81— Flate . Construction of Edison Cell and Method of Oiouplng
Cells to Form Ugbtlng or Ignition Batterr-

160 Starting, lAghting and Ignition Systems

Edison battery is that overcharging at the normal rate has no
harmful effects and it is advised by the maker to give the battery a
12 hour charge once every 60 days or when the electrolyte is re-
plenished. The electrolyte must be kept sufficiently high so as to
cover the plates and any loss by evaporation must be compensated
for by the addition of distilled water. Another feature in which
the Edison battery is superior to the lead plate type is that the
plates will not.be injured if the cells are allowed to stand in a dis-
charged condition. The external portions of the cells must be
kept clean and dry because the container or can is made of a con-
ducting material. The vent caps must be kept closed except when
replacing electrolyte or bringing the level up to the proper height
by adding distilled water. Care should be taken to avoid short
circuiting of the battery by tools or metal objects and special em-
phasis is laid on the precaution that no acid or electrolyte con-
taining acid be poured into the cells. It is said that the Edison
battery has a longer life than the lead plate type of equal capacity.
While eminently suited for ignition and lighting, also for vehicle
work, it is not as well adapted for starting purposes as the lead
plate battery is.

Winter Care of Storage Batteries. — It would not da simply
to leave the battery in the car for a period of, say, 4 or 5 months
without giving it any care or attention, for in that case at the
end of that time it would be found to have its plates so thickly
covered with lead sulphate as to make it practically useless. For
storage batteries '*to rest is to rust" and become ruined, unless
special precautions are taken. Automobile storage batteries are
all or nearly all of the sealed-in type from which the elements
cannot be removed without a great deal of trouble. Therefore,
the only method of keeping the plates intact consists in charging
the battery at intervals of about two weeks. The following ad-
vice concerning the care of batteries during a protracted period
of idleness of the car is due to the Willard Storage Battery Co.,
and refers especially to the batteries of starting and lighting
systems.

At intervals of 2 weeks the engine should be run until the
electrolyte shows a specific gravity of 1.280. If this is done regu-

Winter Care of Storage Batteries 161

Jarly the engine need be run only about an hour each time. But
if the owner should not be in possession of an hydrometer, it is
better to run the engine for 2 or 3 hours each time, for the sake
of safety. To charge the battery properly the engine should be
run at a speed corresponding to a car speed of about 20 mph on
the direct drive. There may be cases, however, where the owner
is compelled to store his car in a space where it is practically im-
possible to run the engine. Where this is the case, it is recom-
mended, if electric current is available, that the owner purchase
a rectifier or small charging machine. A charge over night, or
for about 12 hours, every 2 weeks with this apparatus will be
sufficient to keep the battery in a healthy condition. Before be-
ginning the charging the battery should be inspected to see if it is
filled with solution. If the solution needs replenishing, distilled
water should be added until the solution fully covers the plates,
which may be determined by removing the vent plugs and looking
down into the cells. In case it is impossible to run the engine for
charging and the owner does not care to incur the expense of
purchasing a rectifier, he should remove the battery from the car
and arrange for its storage at a garage which has charging facili-
ties, stipulating that it must be charged every 2 weeks. The cost
of having it so cared for will be nominal and will prove excellent
insurance against deterioration.

To care for storage batteries of a type that is easily taken apart
the following method is recommended: First charge the battery
until every cell is in a state of complete charge. If there should
be any short circuited cells they should be put into condition be-
fore the charge is commenced, so that they will receive the full
benefit of the charge. Then remove the elements from the jars,
separating the positive from the negative groups, and place in
water for about 1 hour to dissolve out any electrolyte adhering to
the plates. Then withdraw the groups and allow them to drain
and dry. The positives when dry are ready to be put away. If
the negatives in drying become hot enough to steam, they should
be rinsed or sprinkled again with clean water and then allowed
to dry thoroughly. When dry, the negatives should be replaced
in the electrolyte (of from 1.275 to 1.300 specific gravity), care

162 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

being taken to immerse them completely and allow them to soak for
3 or 4 hours. Two groups may be placed in. a jar and the jar
filled with electrolyte. After rinsing and drying the plates are
ready to be put away.

The rubber separators should be rinsed in water. Wood sepa-
rators after having been in service, will not stand much handling
and had better be thrown away. If it is thought worth while to
keep them they must be immersed in water or weak electrqlyte,
(ind in reassembling the electrolyte must be put into the cells im-
mediately, as wet wood separators must not stand exposed to the
air for any unnecessary moment, especially when in contact with
plates. Storage batteries always should be stored in a dry place,
preferably in one where the temperature will never fall below 40°
.Pahr, Storage battery solution or electrolyte varies greatly in
density between the points of complete charge and complete dis-
charge. "When completely discharged the electrolyte of the aver-
age battery has a specific gravity of 1.14, and a sulphuric acid
solution of 1.14 specific gravity has a freezing point of about 10°
Fahr. Therefore, if a completely discharged battery is allowed to
stand where it is exposed to extremely low temperature it is quite
possible for the electroljrte to freeze and the cells to be injured in
consequence. However, as already pointed out, a battery for other
reasons must not be allowed to stand in the discharged condition
for any length of time. With increasirg charge the density of the
.electrolyte increases until, when the charge i? complete, it attains
1.28 specific gravity. The freezing temperature of the solution
drops very quickly as the specific gravity increases, somewhat as
follows :

Spec. Grav. Freez. Point Degrees

1.14 +10

1.16 + 5

1.175 — 4

1.20 —16

1.225 —36

1.25 —60

1.28 —85

Care and Repair of Spark Plugs 168

Consequently there is no possibility of a storage battery being
injured by freezing in this latitude if it is kept in a fair state of
charge.

Spark Plug Faults. — The part of the ignition system that is apt
to give the most trouble, and for the most part through no fault
of its own, is the spark plug which is placed in the combustion
chamber in order to permit a spark to take place between the
electrodes whenever it is necessary to explode a charge of gas.

Spark plug troubles are not hard to locate, as they may be
readily determined on inspection. If an engine misses fire, i.e.,
runs irregularly, it is necessary to locate the spark plug at fault
in order to remove it for inspection or cleaning. The common
method of doing this is to short circuit the spark plug terminal
with some metallic portion of the engine by using a wood handle
screw driver, as shown at Fig. 82, A. Each plug is tried in turn,
and when a good one is short circuited the engine will run even
slower than before. If a plug is short circuited and the engine
does not run any slower or work differently, one may assume that
the plug is defective or that the cylinder is not firing for some
other reason. A very simple spark plug tester which can be made
by any repairman for use on cars employing magneto ignition or
high-tension battery-distributor ignition, is shown at Fig. 82, B.
This consists of two strips of brass riveted together at one end and
fitted into a fiber or hard rubber handle. The brass strips are
spread apart so that contact may be made between the plug body
and insulated central terminal of practically any size plug. When
a four-cylinder or six-cylinder engine uses individual spark coils
for ignition, it is possible to detect the missing cylinder by holding
down the coil vibrators with the fingers, leaving the engine to run
on one of the coil units or one cylinder as the others are cut out.
Each eoil unit is tried in turn, and when all others are rendered
inoperative except the defective one or the coil leading to the
defective spark plug, the engine will stop. The wire leading from
the spark coil is traced to the spark plug, and that member re-
moved for examination. The common trouble is a deposit of burnt
oil or carbon around the insulator and between the plug points.
This short circuits the current as it provides an easier path for

164 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

rig. S2. — Sboving Methods of Testing Spark Plug and Adjusting Air
Gap Between the Electrodes.

the passage of electricity than the air gap does. If the points
are too close together the plug will become short circuited very
quickly and ignition is apt to be erratic because the spark does

Care and Repair of Spark Plugs 165

not have sufficient heat to ignite the mixture. If the spark points
are too far apart the resistance is apt to be too great for the
current to jump the air gap. The porcelain may crack or be-
come broken; in which case the current is apt to short circuit if
the break is down in the plug body. If a mica or lava insulator
becomes oil soaked, this also will produce short circuit.

Most plugs are of the easily separable form, as shown at Pig.
82, A, in which case the insulator may be easily removed by
unscrewing the packing nuts that keep it seated against the plug
body. If the plug is clean when examined the thing to do is to
see that the spark gap is correct. This should be about one-
thirty-second inch. "Whenever a spark plug is to be put into use,
whether it is a new one or old one which has been cleaned, the
spark points should always be set so there is a gap of about the
thickness of a smooth ten-cent piece between them. The method
of obtaining a correct spark gap depends entirely upon the type
of the plug. In the plug shown at Fig. 82, C, which has a plate
at the end, it is necessary to bend over the center stem by using
a small screw driver or similar tool as indicated. With a plug
of the form shown at D the center stem is bent th6 proper dis-
tance away from the small hook-shaped wire or electrode which
projects from the bottom of the spark plug body. In some plugs
it is easier to bend the central stem than the side electrode, as the
latter is of hard material, whereas in others it is not possible to
bend the central electrode and the point attached to the plug body
must be bent instead. It is important when replacing the por-
celain insulator after cleaning to make sure that the packing nut
is drawn down quite tight in order that the joint will be tight
enough to hold the explosion pressure. It is also necessary to
screw down the small hexagon lock nut on top of the spark plug
porcelain, as if this is left loose the center stem of the plug will
be free to turn in the porcelain, especially if the thumb nut or
terminal is being tightened. It will be apparent that if the center
stem is bent over toward the side electrode in the manner shown
at D, that if it is turned a very smaU part of a circle the size of
the gap between the center stem and side electrode will be altered
appreciably. If the porcelain is found covered with oil and car-*

166 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

bon when removed, it should be thoroughly cleaned, care being
taken not to scratch the glazing on the porcelain surface, as if
this glaze is destroyed it will be possible for the porcelain to ab-
sorb oil. The interior of the plug body and the electrodes should
also be scraped clean of all carbonaceous matter. If the porcelain
is scratched or defaced in any manner it should be replaced with
a new one. If the plug is apparently in good condition and yet
the cylinder refuses to fire, it may be well to substitute the plug
with one known to be in good condition, as there may be some
minute short circuit in the porcelain that is not apparent upon
inspection.

Plugs using mica insulation are very deceptive, as in many cases
short circuits exist that cannot be detected by the eye in daylight.
A good way to test a suspected mica plug is*to lay it on top of the
cylinder after dark, taking care not to have the insulated terminal
in contact with any metal parts except the high tension current
lead. The engine is then run on the other cylinders and the
inside of the spark plug watched to see if sparks jump between
the insulator and the plug body, instead of between the points.
If a short circuit exists it will be easily detected by the minute
sparks plainly evident in the darkness. It is sometimes possible
to test a plug out in daytime by shading it from the light in some
manner, as with a black felt hat. After the spark points have
been set correctly, it is well to double up a piece of emery cloth
with the abrasive surface on the outside, as shown at Fig. 82, E,
and move it baek and forth between the plug points a number of
times to brighten thenl up and to insure that there will be no
foreign matter present between them that is apt to* short circuit
the current. An old tooth-brush and gasoline are the best tools
for cleaning a spark plug without taking it entirely apart as stiff
brush bristles will remove any oil or material soluble in gasoline.
Acetone is a solvent for carbon, and if that material is not baked on
too hard it is possible to remove the deposit without scraping it off.

Many cases of ignition trouble have been traced to the use
of improper spark plugs or to faulty location of these members.
Manufacturers of spark plugs have given the matter of location
-considerable thought during recent years, and the endeavor is to

Induction Coil Troubles 167

produce a plug specially designed or adapted for the motor for^
which it is to be used. The spark plug shell or base is constructed
so the spark points will project into the combustion chamber.
It is also important to make provision for proper cooling of the
spark plug. This last named factor is an important one that is
seldom given consideration by owners or repairmen who change
the spark plugs without making sure that they are adapted to the
motor. To obtain the greatest efficiency from the explosion it is
important that the spark points project into the combustion cham-
ber in such a way that they be surrounded with cool fresh gas. If
the gas of the plug is located in a recess or pocket, as indicated
at Fig. 52, A, dead gas is apt to accumulate aT)out the points,
and combustion will be much slower than it would be with the
spark plug located as at B. It will be evident that with this
construction of the valve cap the spark points project into the
induction chamber, permitting the spark to take place in fresh
mixture and promote rapid spread of the ignition flame. Another
faulty mounting when a plug is located directly in the combustion
chamber is shown at C. It will be apparent that with a projection
from the plug body having a space around it in which the hot
gases may collect, the plug will heat up much quicker than the
mounting shown at D in which the heat will be conducted away
by the cooling water. A plug that becomes heated will tend to.
soot up and carbonize much quicker than one in which provisions
have been made for proper cooling.

Induction Coil Faults. — The high-tension induction coil is one
part of the ignition system that can seldom be repaired outside
of the factory. In the first place it is not possible to reach the
interior parts of an induction coil because the windings and con-
denser are usually imbedded in a hard insulating compound that
has been poured into the coil box in a molten condition, and
which becomes as hard as stone when it sets. The only part of
an induction coil that is possible to correct is faulty vibrator
action, and fortunately the vibrator is about the only part of a
well-made coil that demands attention. If the vibrator does not
buzz when the circuit is closed at the timer and the wire leading
from the timer to the coil unit is found in good condition, the

168 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

trouble is due to a broken connection inside of the coil box or the
contact points do not touch. If the vibrator operates as it should
and there is an extremely bright spark between the points and
a weakened secondary spark, it is reasonable to assume that the
condenser inside of the coil box is ruptured.

If there is a proper vibration or buzz at the vibrator and no
secondary spark from the high-tension terminal, the trouble is either
a broken high-tension connection or a short circuited secondary
winding. Sometimes a wire inside of a coil is twisted off where
it fastens to the terminal screw, due to that member being turned
around several revolutions with a pair of pliers. A case of this
kind may be fixed by removing the bottom or top of the coil box,
as the case may be, and making sure that the connection is re-
soldered to the- terminal post. A punctured winding or short cir-
cuited condenser can only be repaired by the coil manufacturer,
and in most cases it is cheaper to procure a new coil unit, which
is easily removed in modern coils, than to attempt to have the old
one repaired.

When a coil unit is suspected of being defective it is easy to
ascertain if this is the case by changing it for one of the coil
units which is known to be in good condition. If the cylinder
which was formerly served by the good coil unit now begins to
skip, one may assume that the coil unit is at fault. If the trouble
has not been due to other causes, the cylinder that was formerly
at fault will begin to operate as it should as soon as the spark
plug is connected to the good coil unit which has been substituted
for the one thought to be defective.

Adjusting Coil Vibrators. — The repairman who understands
the vibrating spark coil is the exception rather than the rule.
Many are able to adjust a vibrator, but do not know how to locate
troubles, or to remove the exposed component such as the bridge,
vibrating spring, etc., and reassemble the parts correctly. If the
vibrator buzzes weakly when contact is made at the timer, the first
thing to do is to test the battery to make sure that there is suffi-
cient current available to operate the vibrator, then the contact
points should be examined to see that they are clean and smooth.
Various defective conditions are shown at Fig. 83, A; any one

Adjusting Coil Vibrators

169

of these will interfere with correct contajct and with proper vi-
brator action. At A-1 a pit has been burnt in the lower point
and a projection has been built up on the upper one. At A-2
the points have been cleaned with a file which has been inserted
at an angle so the contact members do not have a true flat surface.
At A-3 a point has been built up on one side of the contact of both
vibrator springs and contact screw points. As these contact points

Al.

A 2.

A3.

VIBRATOR ADJUSTING
SCREW

hill miiMiiiailli ^llllM

F":iii

Column

f^djudtiz^ (Scrft w WirAcs to CoU

V An gS-gg

Wbrat

Terminal
tJcrow'Criver

Fig. 83. — ^Methods of Cleaning Induction CoU Vibrator Contact Screws.

are of platinum it is important to remove as little of that valuable
material (which is now worth more than gold) as possible.

For this reason it will be desirable for a repairman working
on cars using vibrator coils to provide himself with the simple
fixture shown at Fig. 83, B, which insures that the points will
be dressed true without removing much material. The fixture is
a simple U-shaped piece of hardened steel having a series of holes,
A, B, C, drilled into it of such size as will permit the insertion

170 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

of the most commonly used sizes of vibrator adjusting screws.
These are not threaded, the screw F being a free fit in the hole
corresponding to the outside diameter of the thread. A feed screw
E may be interposed under the adjusting screw in order to feed it
up against the smooth file used to clean off the roughness. This
screw may be shifted into any one of the tapped poles under the
holes A, B and C for feeding different sized contact screws.

VIBRATOR ADJUSTING SCREW

ARMATURE

CONTACT
POINT

BRIDGE

VIBRATOR SPRING ^. ^.^ ^^„,_

5CREW LOCK SPRING

CONTACT
POINTS

CORE

ARMATURE

Fig. 84. — ^Typical Induction Coll Vibrator.

The conventional vibrator is shown at Fig. 83, C, and another
form at Fig. 84. It will be noticed that this consists of a vibrator
spring or armature carrying one contact point and a bridge mem-
ber over it carrying another contact which is set into a knurled
head adjusting screw in that at Fig. 83, C. The smaller bridge
holds the vibrator spring and is also provided with a knurled
screw so the vibrator spring tension may be adjusted. Directly
under the vibrator is the iron core which attracts it to break the
contact between the points. The farther away the vibrator is from

Coil Vibrator Adjustment 171

the core the more current will be needed to actuate the vibrator.
The spring tension should be sufficient, so that the trembler will
vibrate fast enough to produce a pronounced buzzing sound. If
the vibrator spring lacks elasticity, too much current will be con-
sumed which is an important item if the current for ignition is
derived from a dry cell battery. In adjusting the coil vibrator it
is not necessary to turn the motor over to establish contact as the
tuning up may be readily performed on most coils by connecting
a wire to the steering post as shown at G, £lnd touching the knurled
head of the adjusting screw or the bridge carrying it with the
other end of the wire. It is necessary, of course, to have the switch
on the coil in the *'on" position. Another method of accomplish-
ing this is to short circuit the timer with a screw driver as shown
at B, which is used to bridge the wire terminal and the aluminum
timer case. In this way each of the vibrators may be made to buzz
in turn. If the points are not too badly burnt it is possible to
clean them with a piece of very fine emery cloth as shown at Fig.
83, B, without removing either vibrator or contact screw from the
top of the coil. Where battery current is used it is well to test
the current consumption of the coil from time to time as the vi-
brators are adjusted. It is possible to have a coil draw twice 83
much as needed if the vibrator spring tension is too great. The
current consumption will vary from .5 to 2.2 amperes, a fair aver-
age being about 1 ampere. The usual primary voltage needed is
5 or 6, and the trembler vibrations will vary from 100 to 400 per
second. If the vibrator tends to stick, the core should be filed
off as well as the undersurface of the vibrator to remove any rust
that may be present between the surfaces. A projecting core wire
sometimes interferes with proper vibrator action. Make sure the
top of the core is smooth and bright.

Boiler Contact Timer Troubles.— When a timer of the roller
<»ontact form is used, ignition is apt to be irregular should the
spring attached to the free end of the roller arm break. If the
interior of the device is filled with dirty oil, the current is apt
to be short circuited. If the device has been oiled with a lubri-
cant having too much body, the roller is not apt to make good
contact with* the metal segments and ignition will be erratic. De-

172 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

preciation in the bearing pin on which the roller rotates or of
the fulcrum pin on which the roller arm swings will also result
in irregular ignition. If the motor runs steadily at low speeds
but misses fire at high speeds, and the trouble has been traced
to the timer, it is necessary to feel around the inside of the
fiber ring with the finger to see that this is smooth and per-
fectly round, and that the contact block faces are flush with the
surface of the ring. If the blocks are worn below the surface of
the ring, the roller is apt to jump the space at high speeds, due
to the low block, and not establish an electrical contact. At low
speeds the tension of the spring is sufficient to keep the roller
bearing against the contact blocks, as it will follow the irregular
contour of the timer interior without difficulty. If the segments
are badly worn and the fiber ring roughened, the timer casing
should be chucked in a lathe or grinding machine and the interior
ground smooth and perfectly round with a small emery wheel.
The writer has seen some mechanics attempt to take a light chip
out of the timer interior, as they were ignorant of the fact that
the contact blocks were of tool steel and hardened. A fast-running,
free-cutting emery wheel 'is the best tool to use for smoothing
down hardened steel segments. The stem or bolt attached to the
contact block must pass through a fiber washer or bushing in
order that it be insulated from the timer body. If these bushings
crack, there may be an opportunity for leakage of current, espe-
cially on the Ford car, where the ignition current is derived from
the magneto and is stronger than that usually produced by a
chemical battery.

Wiring Troubles and Electrostatic Eflfects. — The principal
troubles that are apt to occur in the wiring systems are evident
on inspection, these consisting usually of a break in the conductor,
which may sometimes be concealed by perfect insulation covering ;
wearing away of the insulation due to abrasion between the wire
and some metal portion of the car which eventually results in a
short circuit and the wiring becoming oil soaked and failing to
properly carry the charge of current which leaks through the de-
fective insulation. The wiring of a complete dual ignition sys-
tem in which two radically different methods of ignition are used

Double Ignition System 173

is shown at Fig. 85. One system consists of a set of low tension
igniter plates mechanieally operated from a saitable camshaft, the
other method, which is independent, has high tension ignition pluga
operated through a timer of the usual forni. At the present time
where dual ignition systems are provided the usual practice is

Fig. 85. — Sidft View of Engine Used on Some Oolumbla Automobiles
Having the Baie Oombination of Botb Higb and IiOw Tension Ignl-
tloa Systems.

to use two high tension systems, odo of which will derive its cur-
rent from a battery and eoil, the other which will receive the
enei^ of a high tension magneto. A typical double system
adapted for six cylinder engine ignition is shown at Fig. 86. In
this two spark plugs are carried in each cylinder, one over the
intake, the other over the exhaust valve. A battery timer is
mounted close to the dash from which six primary wires go to the

17i Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

Supports for Igmtion Wires

175

individual coil units of the coil box. High tension wires come
from the bottom of the coil to one set of spark plugs. Another
set of high tension wires extends from the magneto distributor to
the remaining set of spark plugs.

It will be apparent that in both of the systems shown that con-
siderable care is taken to have the wiring carried in an orderly
manner and kept out of contact with the metal portions of the

SECONOm CflBLES

tN^ULfirOR SUPPOHT3

D/ST/f/dUTO/^.

CL£/iT370A££P

_ nagg, TUBE

OfSTHtBUTOH

TO PLUGS C

BRASS TUBE.

J3i5TRIdUrOR

SUPPORTS ^

CONDOJT roR tr/f^LS

SPAf^H
PLUGS

Fig. 87. — ^Methods of Insulating and Supporting Secondary Cable As-
sembly.

176 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

cylinder by suitable insulating blocks, usually made of fibre, as at
Fig. 86 or Fig. 87, A, or in a fibre-lined metallic conduit, as shown
at Fig. 87, D.

A typical double ignition system which has been used on some
models of the Locomobile is clearly shown at Fig. 88. The method
of running the wires for the primary circuit is very clearly out-
lined at A. The complete wiring diagram showing the high ten-
sion leads going from the magneto distributor to the spark plugs is
shown at B. With a system of this kind the current may be de-
rived from a battery which is timed by a primary circuit breaker
attached to the magneto contact breaker box and sent through a
single unit coil secured to the dash. The secondary current from
the coil is led to the center of the magneto distributor, which
serves the dual purpose of directing the high tension current
from either the magneto armature or the induction coil to the
spark plugs in the proper firing order. The usual method of hous-
ing the secondary cables in a conduit of insulating material so that
there will be no liability of short circuiting due to oil accumula-
tions or to contact with metal parts is so clearly shown at Fig. 87,
C, that further description is unnecessary.

The repairman does not generally recognize the fact that the
manner in which the high tension cables are led from a magneto
or spark coil to the spark plugs is sometimes the cause of misfiring
and ignition irregularities which are hard to locate. A spark may
sometimes occur in a cylinder in which the piston is going down
on its suction stroke which is not due to defective insulation of the
wires or to short circuiting, but to an electrostatic action between
one wire and a neighboring one through which no current is flow-
ing. Endeavor should always be made to keep the secondary cables
as short as possible, as in some cases if a conductor is too long the
tendency is toward an unreliable spark. Some ignition experts
condemn the practice of running the secondary wires close together
in a fiber-lined conduit and recommend the use of fiber cleats se-
cured to supports extending from the engine and provided with
grooves that will hold the cables some distance apart.

When individual unit coils are used a condition that often puz-
. zles those who have had no previous experience with it is what is

Tyjnccd Double System

known among old-time repairmen as "bucking," this usually being
evidenced on engines of the four or six cylinder forms. The symp-
tom is the same aa a premature explosion in some one of the cyl-
inders, this having a tendency to cause the engine to come to an
abrupt stop. One is often led to believe that a short circuit ex

178 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

sciiav wmesnuifD

SPK06 TOtMW^

HOLE FOIf BiiMB wjira

ists at one of the timer wires which allows a contact being made at
the wrong time, producing a spark in the cylinder about to fire
before the gas is fully compressed or the piston has reached top
center. This is due to an inductive interference between one induc-
tion coil and a neighboring one. It is known that when the pri-
mary coil becomes energized in any unit the core becomes a magnet,
and as is common with all bar magnets, lines of force are given out
which run from the north to the south poles and which induce a
current in the secondary winding of the transformer coil. If this

magnetic influence does
not go astray from its
proper confines no trou-
.ble will be experienced.
If a portion of this mag-
netic field strays over
into a neighboring coil
unit enough voltage may
be induced in the sec-

•

ondary winding of the
latter to produce a weak
spark at a spark plug
connected with a coll
which rightly should re-
main inactive. This
condition is more noted
with old-style induction coils than with modern ones, and usually re-
sults when the motor is running slowly. The trouble has been elim-
inated in many of the later forms of multiple unit coils by providing
anti-induction shields between the units. These are merely metallic
strips in which the energies from the stray magnetic force is dissi-
pated in the form of eddy currents instead of cutting wire layers of
adjacent units. If this trouble is experienced and none of the com-
mon faults are found to exist, such as carbon deposits and rough
edges in the interior of the combustion chamber or long, thin spark
plug points which remain incandescent and retain heat from a
previous explosion, one may suspect trouble in the multiple unit
lil. It has been cured at times by inserting thin strips of sheet

BUTTON

^P/f/NG TSmtNAL

Fig. 89. — ^Fonng of Terminals for Attachment
to Ignition SjrBtem Cables.

Ignition Current Switches

179

iron between the eoil units. The most frequeilt cause of "buck-
ing" is defective insulation of the secondary wires, which allows
the current to jump from one cable to another. This is sometimes
found to be the case when all cables are passed closely together

^^^ ^KEY SOCKET

\ \ySmTa LEVER

' B

^ 11

hfT;

r ■

CONnCT ^

BUTTONS/

SWITCH
HAHDLS

Tig. 90. — CooBtnictloa of iKcitlon Ounent Swltcbea Outlined. A— IiOrw
Type Magneto and Battery Svltch. B — Plug Switch for Controlling
One Ofrcult.

through a common tubuiar conduit, and is not apt to result when
wires are carried apart in cleats, as in Fig. 87, B.

Battery Ignition System Hints. — See that the wires are heavy
enough to carry the current and that all- the connections are kept
clean and bright as every corroded joint causes needless resistance.

180 Starting^ Lighting and Ignition Systems

Inspect battery* connections etc., occasionally as they have a
habit of working loose.

Look well to the ground connection, which should be very se-
curely made and placed where it will not corrode.

Be sure the battery, especially if dry cells are used, is where
it cannot get wet, as the paste-board may absorb sufficient moisture
to short circuit the celLs.

See that all wires are securely fastened so that they cannot by
any means rub or chafe against either wood or metal parts • espe-
cially the secjondary wires.

Frequently examine the condition of the plugs, as troubles
caused by plugs are often looked for elsewhere.

Don't allow the wires to become water- or oil-soaked, as short
circuiting will probably result.

Don't screw down electrical connections with the fingers, as a
tight joint cannot be made. Use pliers.

Don't allow the storage battery to get so far discharged that
it will not operate the coil. See that the vibrators are set as lightly
as possible to run the engine without skipping, otherwise they will
waste current.

Don 't take it for granted you have ignition trouble every time
the engine stops.

Don't start out knowing the battery to be nearly exhausted,
as it may run all right to start with, but will probably go out of
business at a most inopportune time and place.

Don't adjust the coil vibrator for the biggest possible spark,
as it wastes current.

Don't think a multiple unit coil is no good if the vibrators do
not buzz exactly alike.

Don't test storage batteries with an ammeter unless they are
charging or discharging.

Don't strain the coil by disconnecting the secondary wires com-
pletely so that no spark can jump, or by testing how far it will
jump.

Don't screw or nail anything on to the coil box, as you may
injure it.

Don't tolerate any loose wires or poorly made connections. Fix

Timing Battery Ignition Systems 181

them at once, using terminals for all wires as shown at Fig. 89,
making sure no loose strands of wire project. Terminals should
be securely soldered to wire.

Be sure all timer contacts are clean, contact points properly
adjusted and distributor brushes 0. K. Carbon dust in distributor
will cause skipping as well oil in timer portion on points.

Don't think the ignition system will function properly with
loose or. dirty switch connections. Examine switch parts as shown
at Fig. 90 for looseness or corrosion of contacts.

Timing Battery Ignition Systems. — In timing a motor using a
battery ignition system with individual vibrator coils to supply
the current to respective cylinders, the first thing to ascertain is
the firing order of the engine to be timed. The diagram. Fig. 91,
shows all components of a battery ignition system, also a sectional
view of one of the cylinders of the engine, showing the position
of the piston when the spark should occur in the cylinder with
the primary timer fully advanced. When the primary timer is
fully retarded the spark will take place after the piston has reached
the top of its stroke and has started to go down on the explosion
stroke. The four unit spark coil has a two point switch on its
face and has ten terminals. Four of these which are protected
by heavy insulators or bushings of hard rubber run to the spark
plugs as indicated. These are the secondary terminals. The
two primary terminals under the switch are connected to the posi-
tive poles of the dry cell and storage batteries respectively, the
negative terminals of the two batteries being joined together by a
common wire and grounded. This leaves four primary leads which
go to insulated terminals connecting with the segments of the
timer.

The method of timing an engine is very simple. The spark
advance lever on the steering wheel is advanced fully. The inlet
valve of cylinder No. 1 is watched as the engine is turned by the
hand crank. Just after the inlet valve closes which indicates that
the piston has started to go up on its compression stroke the piston
travel may be gauged accurately as it moves up by the timing rod
inserted through a petcock in the top of the cylinder or through
a valve cap opening. If the engine is not provided with a reli^

182 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

cock or spark plug that will permit the use of the gauge rod, the
flywheel markings may be utilized to determine the center corre-
sponding to the end of the piston upward movement. The vibrator
o£ coil connected to cylinder No. 1 should begin to buzz with the

rig. 91. — Simplified Wini^ Diagram Explaining Uetboda of Timing
Spark In Battery Ignition Systems.

timer casing in full advanced position before the piston reaches
the end of its upward stroke. The amount of crankshaft travel
is about 30 degrees from the point where the spark takes place to
that where the piston reaches the top of its stroke. If the timer
casing is set in full retard position the spark should take place
f)0 degrees of the crankshaft travel after the piston has left the

Timing Battery Ignition Systems 188

end of its compression stroke. Some engines have the spark set
45 degrees advance. "With the spark advance lever set about half
way of its travel the spark may be made to occur just when the
piston reaches the end of its compression stroke, or on top center.
It 16 necessary to provide a wider range of spark advance on a
battery and coil ignition system than when a magneto is used, as
it is said that a range of advance of 60. degrees is sufficient for
four^cylinder motors and 27 degrees for six-cylinder motors with
magneto ignition.

In timing a strange car it is easy to tell whether the movement
of the spark lever advances or retards the timer case by noting
the direction of movement of that member. If the spark advance
lever is pushed in a certain direction, say from the point on the
sector nearest the driver to the other extreme, and the segments'
on the timer move to meet the advancing contact roller, it is evi-
dent that a movement of the spark advance lever from front to
rear advances the ignition. If the timer case oscillates so the
segment moves away from the advancing contact roller, that move-
ment of the spark lever retards the ignition. In most timers the
rotating contact member is fastened to the shaft in such a way
that it may be moved independent of engine rotation, if desired,
by releasing the fastening. Sometimes it is held on a tapered
shaft by a clamping nut, in other constructions it is driven by a
hollow shaft which is set screwed to the timer driving shaft the
position of which can be changed as desired. In every case the
roller should be set in contact with the segments joined to coil
unit No. .1, the remaining terminals being wired according to the
firing order and the direction of rotation of the timer brush. In
the diagram now under discussion after the roller leaves unit No. 1
segment it will go to that in connection with unit No. 2, then to
the one joined to unit No. 4, and finally to the terminal conveying
the electrical current to unit No. 3. This means that the plug in
cylinder No. 1 fires first, followed by those in cylinders 2, 4, 3,
in the order named. With the switch lever in the position ishown
or between the two contact buttons, the ignition is interrupted
and battery current cannot fiow to the coil unit. If the switch
lever is moved to the button on the right marked *' storage bat'

184 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

tery/' the secondary current producer will furnish ignition. If
moved to the button on the left, the dry cells will be brought into
action. The same method is employed in timing a two, three or
six-cylinder motor, the only precaution to be observed being to
run the wires from the timer to the coils so the cylinders will fire
in proper order.

At one time secondary distributor systems using a single unit-
vibrator coil for firing a multiple cylinder engine were very popu-
lar, but at the present time few cars use the long contact timer
and distributor combination. The modern cars that employ battery
ignition use a short contact timer and a non-vibrator coil unit.
Popular systems of this nature are the Atwater-Kent and the
Delco, both of which have been previously described. Practically
the same method of timing is employed with these systems except
that there is but one primary terminal on the contact breaker por-
tion of the distributor which is joined to the corresponding ter-
minal of the spark coil. A proper distribution of current to the
cylinders is made by connecting the distributing terminals to the
plugs in proper firing order.

CHAPTER III

MAGNETO IGNITION SYSTEMS

Magneto Generator Construction — ^Low Tension Magnetos — ^Typical American
Magneto Forms — ^Magnetos for Eight- and Twelve-Cylinder Motors-—
Simple Magneto Ignition System — ^Double System — ^Transformer Coil
Method — ^Dual Ignition — ^Duplex Ignition — ^Two-Spark Magneto — ^Magnetic
Plug System — ^Impulse Starter — Automatic Spark Advance — ^Low Tension
Magneto Troubles — ^High Tension Magneto Troubles — ^Recharging Magnets
— ^Adjusting Parts — Application to Typical Engines — ^Timing Magneto
Ignition System — Firing Orders of Typical Engines.

Magneto Generator Construction. — The magneto is a simple
form of dynamo and a mechanical generator of electricity in which •
permanent magnets are used to produce the magnetic field and
between which the armature revolves. The permanent magnets are
called * Afield magnets'' and at their ends are provided cast-iron
shoes which form the walls of the armature tunnel and which are
known as pole pieces. A typical magneto adapted for single-cyl-
inder ignition is shown in section at Fig. 92. It consists of two
compound horseshoe magnets attached to the pole pieces which
collect and concentrate the magnetism upon the armature. The
armature is shuttle-shaped and carries a double winding of wire
which consists of two coils, one of coarse, the other of fine con-
ductor. The armature is attached to end pieces which carry shafts
and the whole assembly revolves on annular ball bearings. An
ebonite or hard rubber spool is carried at one end while the con-
denser is housed at the other. The make-and-break mechanism is
partly carried by an oscillating casing and the revolving member
is turned from the armature shaft.

The current generated in the coil is delivered to a metal ring on
the ebonite spool from which it is taken by a carbon brush and
delivered directly to the spark plug. Every time the contact points

185

186 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

in the make-and-break devices become separated, a current of high
potential passes through the wires attached to the spark plug and
produces a spark between the points. The magneto is the simplest
and niost practical form of ignition appliance as it is self-contained
and includes the current generator and the timing device in one
unit. In the one-cylinder form shown all connections are made
inside of the device and but one wire leading to the spark plug is
necessary to form the external circuit.

Tig. 92. — Simple Higli Tension Magneto for One Cylinder Ignltloii, a
Complete Apparatus Comprising Source of Ourrent and Timing De-
vice as Well.

A magneto employed for multiple-cylinder ignition is not much
more complicated than that used for single-cylinder service, the
only difference being that a different form of earn is provided in
the breaker box and that a secondary distributor is added to cora-
mutate the current to the plugs in the various cylinders. The
distributor consists of a block of insulating material fixed to the
magnets which carries as many segments as there are cylinders to
be fired. A central distributing arm or segment is driven from
the armature shaft by means of gearing, and is employed to dis-
tribute the high-tension current to the spark plugs. The spacing

Contact Segment Arrangement

isr

of the distributor segments does not differ materially from that of
the battery timers previously described.

Various distributor forms used on magnetos are shown at Fig.
93. That at A is employed for a double opposed cylinder motor
and the contacts are separated by a space of 180 degrees. When

Fig. 93. — ^How Distributor Contacts are Spaced on Two, Three, Four ancl

Six Cylinder Magneto.

a three-cylinder engine is used, as is sometimes the case in the
two-cycle forms, the distributor segments are separated by dis-
tances of 120 degrees. If the distributor is used on a four-cylinder
motor the segments are spaced 90 degrees apart, as shown at C.
To fire a six-cylinder motor, six segments must be used and they

188 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

High Tension Magneto Construction 189

are placed 60 degrees apart, as indicated at D. The speed at which
the armature of the magneto turns also varies with the number
of cylinders. One- and two-cylinder forms turn at cam-shaft speed.
The three-cylinder types when applied to a "four-cycle engine turn
at three-quarters the crank-shaft speed. The four-cylinder magneto
armature is driven at crank-shaft speed, while that of the six-
cylinder forms turn at one and one-half times crank-shaft speed.
When used on two-cycle motors, the speeds given for four-cycle
engines of the same number of cylinders should be doubled.

The important parts of a four-cylinder form of high-tension
magneto are shown at Fig. 94, which is a view of a partially dis-
mantled device. The armature assembly and one of the end plates
by which it is supported are shown at the extreme left. Attached
to the end of the armature shaft are the distributor drive pinion
and the ebonite spool which carries the collector ring. The timer
case and interrupter assembly are shown at the extreme right.
Above it the distributor case is clearly depicted. When the device
is assembled the end of the armature shaft protrudes through the
housing at the lower part of the magnet assembly which is showii in
the center of the group, with the end plate which carries the dis-
tributor gear and disk and one end of the armature in place. The
distributor gear serves to drive a hard rubber plate in which the
distributor segment is imbedded. 'When the distributor case is
screwed in place, the carbon braches, which are spaced around the
interior of the distributor case, collect current from the revolving
distributor segment and lead it to the spark plugs by suitabk cables
which run from the terminals at the top of the distributor casing.

Two systems of high-tension magneto ignition are used, one
termed the true high-tension system, in which a current of high
potential is delivered directly from the armature; the other is the
transformer coil system, so termed because the current produced by
the armature winding is of low tension and must be stepped up or
increased in value before it is delivered to the spark plug by an
induction coil similar in construction to that needed in battery-
ignition systems. In the former apparatus the high-tension current
is produced by means of a secondary winding on the armature
itself, and as the whole apparatus is self-contained it is much more

190 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

Tig. 95.— Simplified wiring Dlagiam Sbowlag Action of Boscli Hlgli
Tension Magneto.

pompact and simpler to install than those which need a separate
transformer coil.

The simplified wiring system of a true high-tension magneto is
shown at Fig- ?5. The armature carries two windings, one indi-

Internal Magneto Wiring 18

eatedby the heavier lines at the bottom called the "primary"; tl
other, composed of finer conductor, is known as the "secondary.
One end of the primary winding is grounded, the other ia joined l
the fixed contact screw of the contact breaker. This end is ah
joined to one end of the secondary winding and the free end of tl

Fig. 96.— Wiring DlagrBin OatUnii^ Metbod of OtMnbinlng Bemy Mag-
neto and Tiansf onaer Coll to Fonn Ignition System for Foni Cylin-
der EngiDM.

secondary winding is attached to the collector ring carried by tl:
ebonite spool. "When the contact points separate, a current is ii
duced in the primary and secondary windings and is delivered I
the center terminal of the distributor disk by the carbon brus
which bears against the collector ring. The various segments of tl
* distributor are connected to the spark plugs in the cylinders, an

192 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

every time the contact points separate a spark will be produced
at one of the plugs because the revolving distributor brush wiU be
in contact with one of the distributor segments.

The wiring of a four-cylinder magneto which employs a trans-
former coil is shown at Figs. 96 and 97. A set of batteries is pro-

SPARK
rLUQS

3-st;?a/id primary

<LAS>IZ

(^Ck4i

Fig. 97. — ^Typical Transfoimer Coil-Magneto System for Four Cylinder

Ignition.

vided to furnish current for starting, as it is sometimes diflScult to
turn the motor sufficiently fast by hand to generate the proper
amount of magneto current to insure prompt -starting. The high-
tension wire from the spark coil or transformer is led to the center
of the distributor and the current is commutated to the plugs just
as though the high-tension current had been produced in the mag-
neto itself instead of in the transformer.

Magneto Construction

194 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

The Connecticut magneto, which is a transformer coil type, is
^shown in longitudinal section and end elevation at Fig. 98. In this,
the transformer coil is mounted between the magnets above the
armature tunnel and the secondary current is applied directly to
the distributing brush by means of a secondary collecting member
'which bears against a suitable terminal in the bottom of the coil

High Tension Wire
to DIatrfbutor

Safety Spark
Qap

Seigment

Distributor Brush-

Condenser

Secondary Winding

Primary Winding

Stationary Windin

DiBtHbutor
Houting

Win to
lifutaUd Contaai

Platinum Tipped Screw

Dam

Fig. 99. — Showing AppUcation of liigh Tension Principle in K. W.

Four Cylinder Magneto.

casing. With this magneto the wiring is as simple as it would be
with the true high-tension form and only five wires are needed in
the external circuit. Of these, four secondary leads run direct from
the distributor to the plug while the remaining one is a primary
ground wire having a switch in circuit through which the primary
coil current may be grounded instead of going to the transformer
coil, thus stopping the motor.

Magneto Construction

196 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

All magnetos do not employ a revolving winding. Some utilize
a stationary coil of wire and use rotating inductor members to cause
the lines of magnetic force to flow through the wire and generate a
current therein. A simplified wiring diagram of the K. W. magneto,
which is an igniter of this type, is shown at Fig. 99, while a sec-
tional view of the device itself is presented at Fig. 100. The station-
ary coil is composed of two windings, a primary and a secondary,
and is mounted in the center of the device so that the rotary in-
ductor shaft passes through it, one inductor being placed at each
side of the stationary coil. The secondary wire passes through the
insulated electrode through a bridge or strap member which is
connected at one end to the spark gap and at the other to a bent
conductor which conveys the current to a revolving distributor arm.

When the contact points are separated by the cam a current of
electricity is induced in the primary coil and transformed to a high-
tension current in the secondary winding and is delivered to the
spark plugs by the conventional form of distributor. Except for
the stationary winding and the use of inductor pieces to reverse the
lines of magnetism through the coil, the construction does not dif-
fer from the forms previously described. It is advanced that the
stationary winding offers some advantages inasmuch as brushes are
not required to collect the primary current.

The function of the safety spark gap is to take care of any
excess current which might damage the insulation of the winding
by allowing it to go to the ground. The air gap between the points
has high enough resistance so that the spark will not jump it under
normal conditions, but should the voltage become suddenly in-
creased in value, as might be the case if one of the plug wires be-
came disconnected, it will leap this gap in preference to overcoming
the resistance of the insulation of the winding. The purpose of the
condenser in a magneto is the same as that used in a coil, i.e., it is
interposed in the primary circuit in such a way that it is in shunt
connection with the contact-breaker points and absorbs any current
which would tend to produce excessive sparking.

Simple Low Tension Magnetos. — Simple forms of magneto
igniters have been devised for use in connection with stationary
and marine engines that have not been adapted for service on the

Magneto Construction 197

automobile power plant. Two very simple magnetos are shown at
Fig. 102, these having been used to some extent in tractor work as
well as OD the various forms of stationary power plants employed
for miscellaneous duties in the shop or on the farm. The form at
A has an oscillating armature instead of the usual form of rotating

Fig. 101.— Sotaj;;- Inductor wlUi Fixed Winding at Top of mustratloa
and Conventional Foim of Botating Winding Sbnttle Annatnx» at

BottMD. .

198 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

armature. The igniter points are mounted integrally with the de-
vice, the design being such that it is possible to bolt the entire ig-
niter unit, including the magneto, to the combustion chamber just aa
the usual make-and-break ignition plate is. The magneto armature
is oscillated by a lever
actuated from a suit-
able cam or eccentric
on the engine camshaft
and the construction is
such that -when the
armature is in the po-
sition of greatest cur-
rent generation an ad-
justable trip member
releases the trip finger
attached to the arma-
ture -which permits the
coil springs to soap
the armature quickly
so that the lines of
force produced by the
permanent magnets are
cut quickly, which
means that a current of
considerable intensify
will produce a spark at
the igniter points. It
is understood that this
must separate at the
time of greatest cur-
rent production in the

Fig. 102.-^OBcUlati)ig Armatuie Iiow Tension
Megneto wltb Incorvorated Igniter Plate
at A, Sometlmm Used oa Stationary En-
gln«s. B — aovemed Type Direct Ounent
Low Tension Uagneto.

oscillating armature member. A form of magneto based on the
oscillating principle is well adapted to slow speed, heavy duty en-
gines, but cannot be applied to the more rapidly moving camshaft
mechanism of the ordinary multiple cylinder automobile power
plant. The magneto shown at B is a simple generator having a
permanent magnetic field and delivering a direct current, due to

Magneto Construction

200 Starting J Lighting and Ignition Systems

the commutator and brushes used in connection with the revolving
armature. This is driven through a governing mechanism of the
usual fly-ball typ^, which interrupts the drive when the armature
speed becomes excessive. A magneto of the form shown at B must
be used in connection with an induction coil and timer just as
batteries are, and the low tension current it produces must be
intensified by a transformer coil.

High tension magnetos may be either one of two general forms,
as shown at Fig. 13 (Chapter I), it being practically impossible to
distinguish between them from external appearances unless care-
fully examined. The magneto shown at A is a transformer coil
type, i.e., it generates a current of low voltage, which must be
intensified by a separate coil of the non- vibrator form, the high
tension coil current being brought to a central terminal on the
distributor and from that point led to the various spark plugs by
the rotary distributing brush. The true high tension magneto,
which is shown at B, is a complete ignition system in itself, and
does not depend on any appliances other than the spark plugs in
the cylinders and a small grounding switch. A high tension current
is delivered from the armature directly to the distributing member
and no separate transformer coil is needed unless the magneto is
used with a dual system. The parts that demand the most frequent
inspection in a magneto are the more accessible ones, these being
the breaker box, which houses the contact points, and the distribu-
tor, which is utilized to commutate the secondary current.

The construction of a Splitdorf transformer coil type magneto
is clearly shown at Fig. 103. The longitudinal sectional view shows
clearly the component parts of the device. The armature is wound
to produce only low tension current, so the magneto must be used
in connection with a separate transformer coil.

Another form of Bosch magneto which is practically the same
in general principles as that previously described, except for slight
differences in the contact breaker and distributor, is shown at Fig.
104. This is a smaller device, using two single horseshoe magnets,
and is intended for small engines up to 30 H.P. The bigger mag-
neto, with its three compound magnets, is more powerful and will
produce a hotter spark, such as necessary to ignite the volume of

Magneto Construction

Fig, 104. — ^Views SbowlDK luteinal Construction of Boscb D U 1 High
Tetiaiou Uagneto.

!2vJ2 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

gas in large cylinders. The Bosch DU4 magneto contact breaker
and distributor are clearly illustrated.

Bosch Nn4 Magneto. — ^Like other Bosch High Tension Mag-
lietos, the type NTJ4 generates its own high tension current di-
rectly in the magneto armature (the rotating member of the mag-
neto), without the aid of a separate step-up coil, and has its timer
and distributor integral. By means of this construction the entire
current generated in the armature is delivered at the spark plugs,
absolutely without loss or lag, and the sparks so produced not only
develop the full power of the engine, but are of such duration and
intensity as to assure combustion of much poorer mixtures than can
!)e ignited by any step-up coil system employing either batteries or
low tension magneto as a current source. The distinct ge?ir-driven
distributor common to other types has been omitted in the/'NU4''
magneto, and in its stead is a double slipring combining the func-
tions of current collector and distributor. The result is a con-
siderable reduction in the number of operating parts, with a cor-
responding lessening of the possibilities of wear and noise, and the
additional advantage of less weight.

As in other Bosch Magnetos, .the current is inexhaustible and
available at a very low armature speed. The wiring is the simplest
possible, for, aside from the switch wire, the only cables employed
are the four leading from the magneto to the spark plugs. It is
important to note that as two of the four slipring brushes receive
contact simultaneously and each is connected by cable to the spark
plug in one of the cylinders, the secondary circuit always, includes
two plugs and the spark occurs in two cylinders simultaneously.
The secondary winding is insulated from the primary and the two
ends of the secondary are connected to two metal segments in the
slipring mounted on the armature, just inside the driving shaft
end plate of the magneto. The slipring has two grooves, each con-
taining one of the two metal segments as shown at Fig. 105. These
segments are set diametrically opposite on the armature shaft,
i.e., 180^ apart, and insulated from each other, as well as from the
armature core and magneto frame.

The four slipring brushes, which are part of the secondary
circuit, are supported by two double brush holders, one on each

Magneto Construction 203

side of the driving shaft end plate, each holder carrying two
hrushes so arranged that each hrush hears against the slipring in
a separate groove. Upon rotation of the armature, the metal seg-
ment in one slipring groove makes contact with a brush on one
side of the magneto at the same instant that the metal segment in
the other slipring groove comes into contact with a brush on tho
opposite side of the magneto. The marks "1" and "2," appearing

Fig. 106. — Contact Breaker and Distributor Arranganent of BobcIi N U 1
Hlgli Tension Magneto.

in white on both brush holders, indicate pairs of brushes receiving
simultaneous contact, those marked "1" constituting one pair, and
those marked "2" the other.

As four-cylinder, four-cycle engines require two sparks per revo-
lution of the crank shaft, and the type "NU4" produces high ten-
sion current only every 180° revolution of its armature shaft, the
magneto must be operated at engine speed in order to provide the
required ignition. It should be taken into consideration that, since

^04 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

at each interruption of the primary circuit a spark appears at two
plugs, the four effective or power sparks required for the four
cylinders during every two revolutions of the crankshaft are
accompanied by a like number of surplus sparks. Each cylinder
receives alternately one effective spark and one surplus spark, the
latter occurring exactly 360° behind the former.

In coupling the magneto to the engine, care should be taken
that the platinum interrupter screws do not separate too late in
their relation to the stroke of the piston. If they do, the surplus
spark will occur when the inlet valve is open. With the magneto
timed correctly, the extra spark always occurs during the exhaust
stroke, when it has no effect on the operation of the engine. The
brush holders fit directly into openings in erich side of the driving
shaft end plate and are held in place by the ''L ''-shaped catch
springs. These springs are pivoted at one end, and at the other, or
rounded end, carry a small boss which, when the spring is in posi-
tion, rests in a notch in the brush holder and secures it in place.
A slight downward pressure and outward pull on the rounded end
of the catch spring disengages the spring and permits removal of
the brush holder.

To connect the spark plug cables to the magneto, the slipring
brush holders are removed and the brushes and brush springs with-
drawn. At the base of each of the brush receptacles is a pointed
cable fastening screw which is to be withdrawn, and in doing so it
is essential to use a narrow-bladed screw driver in order to obviate
the possibility of cracking the insulation of the brush holder.
The ends of the cables are cut off square and pushed as far as
they will go into the cable sockets of the brush holder. The pointed
cable fastening screws are then returned to position, piercing the
insulation and wires of the cable, thus securing it tightly and at
the same time making perfect electrical connections.

Splitdorf Dixie Magnetos. — By adding eight and twelve cylin-
der models to its line of magnetos, the Splitdorf Co. is able to fur-
nish magneto ignition for any automobile engine now on the mar-
ket. The Mason principle on which the Dixie magnetos operate is
a radical departure from ordinary magneto practice, and possesses
many features of great interest. In the first place the rotating

Magneto Construction

Tig. 106. — Dlagnua Ezplatnlug Action of SpUtdorf "Dixie" Uagneto
at A. B — ^How Ignition Is Advanced oi Retarded. C — Contact
Breab.eT Construction. D— How Secondary Current Is Collected.
E — Interior Vier of Eight Cylinder Diatrlbntor. F — Central Mom-
bet of DisttlbntoT fw Carrying Bnulies.

shaft passes through the magiiet poles instead of between them,
and instead of carrying an armature on which the windii^s are
placed, this shaft carries two solid polar extensions separated by
a non-magnetie distance piece. Surrounding these revolving pr'

206 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

pieces is a light laminated field structure consisting of two pole
pieces F and 6, Fig. 106, and a straight core on top. This core
carries both primary and secondary windings. The principle of
operation is that of sending magnetic lines alternately in opposite
directions through the field structure. It will be seen that the pole
extensions S and N are simply a means of carrying the magnetic
lines from the main magnet to the laminated field structure^ and
that they do not change their polarity. In the four- and six-
cylinder models each polar extension embraces about 90° of the
tunnel.

Path of the Flux. — ^When the pole N is adjacent to G, Fig. 106,
left, the magnetic flux flows in the direction of the arrows through
the core of the windings from left to right. Continuing the rota-
tion of the poles until they occupy a vertical position it will be
seen that the field of the magnet is shorted through the pole pieces,
cutting out the magnetic flux entirely from the core. Passing this
point in rotation the pole extension N then comes into a position
adjacent to F, causing the magnetic lines to flow once more through
the core, but this time in the opposite direction, that is, from
right to left. This reversal of direction of the magnetic flux is,
of course, a necessary feature in any magneto and is the means
of inducing the current in the windings.

In order to render this reversal easy and complete, the path for
the magnetic lines is made Up of thin iron laminations such as are
used also in the construction of the armature in the ordinary
magneto. The Splitdorf Co., however, make the claim for the
Dixie construction that a point of great efiiciency is obtained
since the bulk of iron in the stationary field structure is so small,
its size being governed entirely by magnetic requirements. The
windings are remarkably small, being wound on a core of only
0.75 by 0.5 in., Fig. 106, D. The core is held in place by two
screws passing through slots in the projecting ends. One end of
each of the two windings is earthed. The open end of the high
tension winding terminates in a contact plate P, Fig. 106, D, em-
bedded in a rubber block at the side of the windings. The open
end of the primary winding passes through a brass tube which leads
to the base of the magneto, and so to the contact breaker. Fig. 107.

Magneto Construction 207

In dismantling, this wire is the only electrical connection to be
loosened.

The Sookiiig Field — One of the most important features of the
magneto is that the whole of the laminated pole structure, includ-
ing the windings, can be rocked through several degrees. This'
rocking is accomplished by turning the timer arm of the circuit

Fig. 107. — Sectlonil View of Splitdoif "Dixie" Inductor Type Magneto.

breaker in the ordinary way to advance or retard the spark. By
means of this positive connection between the field and the circuit
breaker it is possible to arrange Uie instrument to produce the
sparks either advanced or retarded at the critical moment when
the most magnetic lines are being cut. Hence the magneto has no
one point in its spark position when the intensity of the spark is
r minimum ; it is uniform all the time.

208 Starting^ Lighting and Ignition Systems

The distributor on the four- and six-cylinder models (Fig. 6)
consists of an insulating block with a short spindle at one end of
which is a spring brush bearing on the contact quadrant P on the
windings. The high-tension current passes from this point to a
radial arm on the distributor face and so to the outer terminals
of the instrument. A good feature is the shortness of the path
for the current from the windings to the terminals. A safety
spark gap is included in the high-tension circuit at the base of
the windings, and the condenser is located on top.

In the circuit breaker (Fig. 106, C) it will be seen that nothing
revolves except the cam attached to the shaft. By this construction
it is possible to adjust the contact points while running as the
contact bases are stationary. The grounding terminal is insu-
lated on the end of the spring clip which holds the breaker cover
in position and as it bears on the center of the cover the ground
wire is also stationary while moving the timer arm.

The four- and six-cylinder instruments are identical in every
respect except the distributor and timing gears. In the eight-
and twelve-cylinder models the shape of the rocking field and also
the polar extensions are changed so that four sparks can be pro-
duced in each revolution. The laminated pole pieces embrace 50°
each of the upper half of the tunnel, instead of 90°. In order to
obtain the requisite number of magnetic reversals with these pole
faces the main polar extensions are in the form of a cross, two
ends being of N polarity and two of S.

The New Compound Distributor. — As it is practically impos-
sible to obtain more than six contacts in a flat distributor disk of
ordinary construction without a great risk of short-circuits caused
by dangerously small electrical hazard distances, a particularly inge-
nious compound distributor (Fig. 106, E and F) has been designed
for the eights and twelves in which the terminals are not arranged
in one plane as in the four- and six-cylinder models, but in two
parallel planes. In the compound distributor block on the eight-
cylinder instrument the high-tension current is led through the
center of the block from the brush C in contact with the windings
to the brush D which bears on the center of the cruciform contact
plate S embedded in the distributor box. This plate has no con-

Magneto Construction 209

nectiOQH with any tenuiiials, but is a means of conducting the cur-
rent in turn to the eight terminals as follows: In .operation the
plate S becomes "live" by contact with the brush D as before
explained. Rotating over the ends of S are the two brushes Al

Fig. 10& — Tonne at Dixie Magneto. A — Six Cylinder. B — Elgbt Cylin-
der. C — For Twelve Cylinder Engines. D — ^Vlew with Cover and
One Uagnet Removed to Show OacUlating Coll and Pole Piece.

and Bl connected respectively to two similar brushes A2 and E2
in the side of the block. The path of the latter brush B2 includes
the four contact pieces B connected to the four of the terminals,
while the other brush A2 rotates iu the path of the terminal plates
A connected to the remaining four terminals. Now, since the tw

210 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

brushes Al and Bl are arranged 135° apart, it follows that eight
fiparks will be distributed to their respective terminals in one
revolution of the distributor block in equal divisions of time. The
timer gear is in the ratio of 2 to 1 so that this magneto runs at
engine speed, an unusual feature of an eight-cylinder magneto.
On the twelve the distributor gear ratio is 3 to 1, requiring a
speed one and one-half times the engine speed.

The distributor for the twelves is identical in every respect
except that the contact star at the base of the box is six-pointed
instead of four, to supply the twelve terminals which are ar-
Tanged in two layers, as shown in the external view (Fig. 108, C).
By the use of the compound distributor block on the eights and
twelves as many as 285 sparks of high intensity can be obtained
per second. Owing to this high speed of spark production a double
contact breaker having two breaker arms and contact points is
used on the twelves.

Constructionally the Dixie magnetos are up to the present high
standard of practice. The shaft runs on ball bearings, as shown
at Fig. 107, tightly fitting brass side covers inclose the magnets
and the whole instrument can be dismantled with no other tool
than a screw driver. The magnet itself is in two parts and fits
into place without bolting, having semi-circular notches which em-
brace the shaft bearing. Great accuracy has been used in the
manufacture of the rotating pole extensions, the clearance between
the ends and the stationary poles being brought down to the
workable minimum. An interesting point in connection with the
operation of these pole extensions is that end thrust is neutralized
by the equal magnetic pull on both ends of the rotor. The com-
pactness of the magnets can be realized from the dimensions which
except in the height are practically identical in all models. The
common width is 4.125 inches and the total length 8.375 inches.
On the twelve the height of the magnet is 7.5 inches, being one
inch more than the others so as to provide a stronger magnetic
field.

The most popular form of magneto, if one can judge by the
numbers of manufacturers using it, is the true high tension type
with the revolving winding, though the low tension type using

Magneto Construction 211

transformer coils have also been used to a large extent. AE mag-
netos do not have rotating windings, three makes, the K. W., Split-
dorf Dixie and early models of the Bemy utilize a fixed winding
and rotary inductor. The inductor pieces are used to conduct

Priuiy iMd

CoarelaiBlat

Pabptou

Tig. 10».— Splitdoif Dixie Magneto Used im 1916 Overland Cars.

the lines of magnetic energy through the winding and produce the
current by cutting the turns of wire. In the armature shown in
the lower portion of Fig. 101 the windings revolve in the mag-
netic field and generate the current. Another form of magneto
which is used on but one make of ear, the Ford, but which enjoys
a wide distribution, is shown at Fig. 110 in connection with the

212 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

complete ignition aystem of the car. Sixteen coils of coarse con-
ductor are carried by a fixed plate, which is bolted to the ei^ine
crank case, as shown at Fig. 16. A number of horseshoe mag-
nets, not shown in the illustration, are carried by the ends of
the flywheel and revolve in front of the fixed coils, the space be-
tween the magnet poles and the cores of the windings being just
enough to provide clearance without danger of hitting the mag-
nets. Owing to the large number of magnets and coils employed.

a very strong current is obtained, which, while pulsating in char-
acter, is used in the same way as battery current would be through
four individual vibrator coils, which are brought into circuit pro-
gressively by the rotary contact timer.

Transformer Coll Magneto Systems. — Methods of wiring typi-
cal transformer eoil magneto systems are shown at Figs. Ill and
112 inclusive. At Fig. 97 all the parts of a system of this nature are
clearly shown, and the wiring may be readily traced from the mag-
neto or battery to the coil. It will be apparent that at the bottom

'ie single unit coil there are four primary terminals and one

Transformer Coil-Magneto Systems

213

Fig. 111. — Typical Wiring Diagrams Showing Splitdorf Transformer Coil-
Magneto Ignition Systems.

secondary terminal. A high tension cable runs from the second-
ary terminal, which is protected by an insulating member to the
central distributing terminal on the face of the distributor. The
terminal marked ^^Baf is attached to the carbon of a 5 dry-cell
battery, while the zinc terminal of the series is connected with a
terminal marked '^Int.*' and **Bat.'' From this same terminal a

214 Starting^ Lighting and Ignition Systems

wire Funs to the terminal on the side of the contact breaker. The
terminal on the face of the contact breaker is coupled to the coil
terminal marked ''Mag/' A terminal on the coil marked '*Grd."
is attached to the grounding terminal on the magneto contact
breaker. With this system, when the switch lever is pushed over
to the side marked **Bat.," the current from the dry cell battery
is conveyed to the magneto interrupter, from which it is led to the
primary winding of the coil. The secondary current is distributed
by means of the magneto distributor to the spark plugs in proper
firing order. When the switch lever is shifted to the other side
of the switch, which is marked ''Mag.," the current for ignition is
obtained from the magneto armature instead of the battery.

Two of the Splitdorf ignition systems are shown at Fig. Ill,
that at A being used in connection with a round type dash coil,
while that at B is employed with a square type dash coil. The
coil at A has but six terminals, that at B has seven terminals. In
the coil at A the center terminal is used for the high tension cur-
rent and is connected to the central terminal of the magneto dis-
tributor. Terminal A of the coil runs to terminal A on the mag-
neto contact breaker face. The wire marked "2" runs to the
terminal on the side of the contact breaker. A wire joins terminal
*'3" on the coil with the grounding terminal "3'' on the magneto.
The two remaining terminals of the coil, which are below the sec-
ondary terminals, are joined to the battery, which is convention-
alized for the sake of simplicity. In the system shown at Fig.
Ill, B, the terminals on the magneto and those on the coil are like-
wise numbered, and there should be no difficulty in tracing these
and making the proper connections if this diagram is used as a
guide.

The Remy transformer coil system is shown at Fig. 112, the ap-
pearance and dimensions of the dash coil and the method of instal-
lation are clearly shown at A. It will be observed that at one end
of the coil there are two terminals, one marked "Bat.," the other
"R.," which are wired to the dry cell battery, as shown. On the
back of the coil is the secondary terminal, clearly outlined at B,
which runs to the center of the distributor. The magneto shown
is intended for six cylinder ignition and therefore has six distribut-

Magneto Wiring Diagrams

Fig. 112. — Wiring Diagram of Bemy Type E. L. Magneto.

216 Starting, Ldghting and Ignition Systems

ing terminals, to be connected with an equivalent number of spark
plugs. In order to simplify the wiring when the Remy system is
employed, the primary wire group, which consists of three wires,
has the insulation of each conductor a different color. One is yel-
low, one green, and the remaining one red. The red wire, which is
attached to the grounding terminal on the magneto base, goes to
the center terminal on the side of the coil that has the three pri-
mary terminals and which is shown at B. This would be the right
«ide if viewed from the front, while the battery terminals are on
the left side, if the coil is looked at from the switch end. The yel-
low wire is connected to the contact screw on the breaker box and
goes to the terminal on the side of the coil nearest the dash. The
^reen wire runs from tfie screw on the magneto base to the remain-
ing terminal on the coil.

Dual Magneto Systems. — ^When the high tension magneto was
first introduced it was looked upon in some quarters by conserva-
tive manufacturers and motorists with some degree of suspicion, as
its reliability had not been thoroughly established. Sometimes diffi-
■culty was experienced in starting a large engine directly from the
magneto because it could not be turned over fast enough with the
hand crank to turn the magneto armature at sufficient speed to
produce a strong spark. In order to provide an emergency sys-
tem of ignition and one that could be used for starting, the mak-
ers of high tension magnetos evolved what are termed ''dual sys-
tems.'' The magneto utilized is practically the same as that used
in the simple high tension systems, except that the contact breaker
had a battery timer added which was used to interrupt a battery
current. The reason for adding the battery timer and not using the
magneto contact breaker was that a short contact was necessary to
obtain satisfactory operation from batteries, which the regular
magneto contact breaker did not furnish. As the writer has pre-
viously explained, the points of a magneto contact breaker are kept
in contact until interrupted by the cam. If these were used on a
battery the current would be flowing through them all the time
they were in contact, which would produce current waste. "With
the battery timer incorporated on the contact breaker the circuit is
-established only at the instant the spark is needed in the cylinder.

Magneto Ignition Systems 217

Fig. lis. — ^wiring Diagram of Slmms-Duplex Ignltioii ByMtatm.

218 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

The systems shown at Pig. 113 are of Simms design and are
duplex systems, the only difference being in the number of ter-
minals provided on the coil. In the system at A four terminals
are used. In that at B, but three are employed. The only differ-
ence in the wiring is the connections of the battery terminals.
On the four termintil coils two of these are joined to the battery.
On the three-terminal coil the wire that runs to point 1 of the
magneto, as shown at B, also is joined to the positive terminal of
the storage battery.

The Bosch Dual system, which is shown at Fig. 114, has six
terminals on the back end of the coil. The coil is attached to the
dashboard, as indicated, in the upper right hand corner, and car-
ries the switch and the starting button on its face. The coil is of
the vibrator type. The terminals are all numbered and the wiring
may be readily traced, as the points to which they connect on the
magneto are numbered to correspond. In this system, instead of
using the usual high tension pencil connecting the collector brush
to the center of the distributor, the high tension brush terminal 3
is joined to a terminal on the spark coil, while terminal 4 of the
spark coil is joined to the central distributing brush 4 of the mag-
neto. Terminal 6 of the coil is grounded, terminal 5 of the coil
runs to one of the battery terminals, the other one being grounded.
This leaves terminals 1 and 2 on the coil. No. 1 being connected to
a terminal at the side of the battery contact breaker, while terminal
No. 2 attaches to a terminal on the side of the magneto contact
breaker. With a system of this kind or with either of those shown
at Pig. 113, it is possible to short circuit the coil by pressing in
on a starting button, whick makes the vibrator buzz even if the
primary contact breaker on the magneto is not making contaxit.
This permits of starting the engipe directly on the spark when
they are of the four or six cylinder form, providing they have not
been stopped long enough for the gas to leave the cylinders.

Duplex System. — The ** duplex'' system differs from the
''dual" system in the method of action. Instead of using a sepa-
rate battery timer, as shown at A, Fig. 115, and an induction
coil having its high tension or secondary lead connected to the
central distributing brush of the distributor, the auxiliary brush

Magneto Ignition Systems

219

A on the magneto contact breaker, as shown at B, is used, and the
winding on the magneto armature is used to intensify the current
from the batteries in connection with a simple form of dash coil
having only a primary winding, as the high tension current is
delivered from the armature winding the same collecting brush
serves to conduct the secondary current to the distributor in either
case, regardless of the source of primary current. The '* Duplex *'
system will not furnish ignition if the armature windings are de-
fective, while the **Duar' system will. The latter is also more

\ikii

SYNCHMNOQSCOIL

GROUND p^

GROUND

TM5S
5UTT0H

BATTERY
SEC to DIST

mSROUNDiNGIffRE

dATtotrcmirmiia
iTi t t

Fig. 114. — ^Wiring Diagram of Bosch Dual Ignition System.

economical of battery current. The wiring diagrams at Fig. 113
are of *^ Duplex^' systems.

Two Spark Ignition. — Most racing and a few pleasure cars
have been equipped with two spark magneto ignition systems, the
idea being to secure greater power and speed due to the use of
two spark plugs in the cylinder. While systems of this kind are
rare, it may be well for the repairman to become familiar with the
principles involved in case he should ever be called upon to install
a two spark magneto or to make repairs on some speedster model

220 Starting, Ldghting and Ignition Systems

Magneto Ignition Systems 221

so equipped. When a magneto is employed in connection with two
spark ignition it is common practice to provide two separate dis-
tributors and in some cases a double wound armature having two
sets of windings served by a common contact breaker. In the
system shown at A, Pig. 116, a two spark magneto is employed

Ftg. 116. — Two Spark Magneto Ignltloii System.

in connection with the simple dash switch wired as indicated, by
which one may obtain the use of but one spark with the switch
lever in the position shown and the double spark if the switch lever
is rocked to the other extreme, or on the line marked "2," If
the lever is swung to the left or on a line with that indicated
"0," no spark will pass through the engine, as the magneto will

222 Starting^ Lighting and Ignition Systems

be grounded. The system outlined at B is that of a two spark
magneto that can be used in connection with a vibrator coil and
battery, as in the dual system previously described. In addition
to the switch on the coil, a two point switch is placed on the dash
in order to obtain single or double spark ignition as desired.

Magnetic Spark Plug Systems. — Other low tension ignition
systems have been devised though .they have never received wide
application in which the moving mechanism needed to operate the
igniter plates from the camshaft have been replaced with magneti-

S£r.j.

/ WS/«/>.

GREEN

REO

YELLOW

BATTERIES

JilSWBUTOR roR
^PARK PLU65

sen.

GREEN

uuu >_^^

tDISTRlBUTORS.

mrr^

j>nive £NO

JPMK PIUGS

jserz

COfiTACT BFCAKCR

Fig. 117. — ^How Bemy Two Spark Magneto is Wired in Ignition Systems.

cally operated spark plugs, the leading example of which is the
Bosch shown at Fig. 118, A. This consists of three main parts, a
supporting member which screws into the spark plug hole in the
combustion chamber, an electro-magnet and oscillating mechanism.
The electro-magnet contains a coil of wire D, and is protected by
a cover B, and iron outer shell A. A cylinder H which is threaded
at its lower end projects into the coil. A collar R forms the
base of the magnet. The oscillating mechanism consists of a pole
piece E, a horse-shoe shaped spring G, and an armature F. The
lower part of the pole piece is provided with threads to fit the

Magnetic Plug System

223

hollow cylinder H, and is formed externally to be retained in the
support K by a retaining nut or collar L. The supporting mem-
ber has the upper half of hexagonal form the same as any spark
plug body and is threaded to fit the spark plug aperture. A
steatite insulating member J in connection with the packing gas-
ket insures against loss of compression or explosive pressure.

The operation of the plug is very simple, as when the terminal
P is connected to the source of current when the electricity passes

Fig. 118. — The Bosch-Honold System Magneto Plug at A and Method of

Wiring at B.

through the coil it magnetizes the core E, which attracts the arma-
ture F, pivoted on a knife edge extending from E to the right,
this separating the contact points M and N and producing a
spark. A brass plug 0 is inserted in the core E so the armature
will not stick to the pole piece due to magnetism. A spring G
tends to keep the points M and N in contact. The point N is
attached to the spark plug body and is V shaped, the other point
on the armature being formed to fit into the V portion of M.
The complete ignition system is shown in diagram form at Fig.

224 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

118, B, and is very much the same as the wiring for a high tension
magneto using jump spark plugs. In addition to the timer or
contact breaker which is of the usual form, the magneto must in-
clude a distributing device which will allow the circuit to flow
to the plug in the cylinder about to fire a charge. The distributor
consists of four contact points carried by a body member of in-
sulating material and a rotary distributor arm that makes contact
with the different contact points in turn according to the firing
order of the engine. The principal trouble apt to occur with the
magnetic plug is short circuiting due to carbon deposits or ac-
cumulations of oil which will interfere with prompt action of the
oscillating armature F. If the spring G breaks, the operation of
the plug will be erratic and the engine will misfire. This system
has received but limited application on automobile engines, but
has been used to some extent in marine engine work so the repair-
man should, at least, be familiar with its principle of operation
in order to have a reasonably complete knowledge of electrical
ignition methods.

Impulse Starters. — Special forms of couplings, as illustrated
at Fig. 119, may be used to drive the magneto armature. This
provides a hot spark even when cranking slowly, as the armature
speed is accelerated by a spring arrangement so the speed approx-
imates that obtained when the engine is turning over under power.
The device illustrated is known as the Eisemann impulse starter
coupling. This may be attached to any model of Eisemann magneto
and is said to have no effect upon its regular operation except at
slow speeds, when it causes the armature to rotate in a series of
jumps instead of at a uniform speed. These jumps cause the
armature to cut the lines of force of the magnets quickly, or at the
same speed that it does when the motor is revolving swiftly, so
that a hot spark is generated.' This removes any necessity for
auxiliary battery ignition for starting on heavy duty motors, for
a hot fat spark is generated at any speed, regardless of how slowly
the crank is turned. The coupling consists of a driving tube A
in the center and a driven cup B inclosing the device, the two
being connected by a spring. Within the driven cup is a loose
ring C, known as the trigger, this ring having a lip which extends

Action of Impulse Starter 225

through a slot on the periphery of the cup. At the bottom of the
coupling is a notched bar, so positioned that as the eup revolTea the
notch registers with the slot in the cup, so that the tri^er lip
drops down by gravity and thus locks the eup against rotation.
This is the position shown in the view at C. On the outside of the
trigger rii^ is a cam which engages a corresponding cam cut in

Fig. 119' — Diagrams Explaining Action of Eisemum Impulse Starter.

the driving tube. When the lip has engaged the notched bar and
the cup ceases to rotate the driving tube continues to turn. This
turning compresses the spring which is seated against a driving pin
on the tube and a block fixed to the cup. At a predetermined point
the cam on the trigger ring engages that on the tube, and lifts the

226 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

trigger far enough for the lip to disengage the notched bar, so
that the compression of the spring spins the cup around in a
clockwiBe direction.

The magneto armature is connected with the cup, and so as the
cup spins around the armature is given a quick twist, producing
a hot spark. At slow speed, as the cup revolves it is caught again
and again by the trigger, but when the motor fires, the speed is
■50 increased that the trigger ring, by its own weight, becomes a

Fig. 120. — Sectional View of Elsemaon Hl^ Tension Magneto Showing
Antcmiatlc Spark Advance Uecbanlsm.

ling governor, and centrifugal force keeps it from dropping down
the slot. In this state the coupling acts as a dead connection
between the drive and the armature, a small lug on the inside of the
trigger ring, at the point where the lip juts out, engaging a
notch in the driving tube, and this providing a positive drive as
long as the speed is maintained. The device includes the standard
Oldham coupling for connection with the shaft, as shown in sec-
tional view at A.

Automatic Spark Advance. — A sectional view of a true high
tension magneto, tli*^ j^jq"--"-" :g shown at Fig. 120. The spark

Automatic Spark Advance

227

time J8 advanced and retarded on most magnetos by rocbing the
contact breaker back and forth by a suitable mechanical connection
with the spark lever on the steering wheel. In the Eisemann mag-
neto outlined an automatic spark control or advancing mechanism,
which increases the lead of the spark as the engine speed increases,
is included. The operation of this automatic timer is very much
the same as that of the Delco automatic spark advance, previously
described. The governor weights are carried by a sleeve or quill
mounted on an extension of the armature shaft, which has a

•

(^^^

^?^

mQm

^^^

Fig. 121. — Sectlcmal Diagram Showing OtmstmctloiL of Here Oovemor
Coupling tQ Secure Automatic Sp&rk Advutce.

rectangular block sliding within it. This block is threaded for
receiving a spirally cut shaft, which is driven by direct connection
with the engine through some form of gearing. The governor
weights are attached to the sliding block by means of links, and
as the shaft is revolved the weights tend to spread apart, and as
they do the block is made to slide in the quill. In so moving it
travels along the threaded shaft, which results in slightly rocking

228 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

the block. As the block oscillates it carries the quill, in which it
works, forward slightly and also the armature shaft to which the
quill is fixed. The armature is thus advanced and also the com-
mutator, which is attached to the front end of the armature shaft.
As the speed increases the governor weights fly farther out and
advance the time of ignition. When the speed diminishes the
weights tend to close up, this being assisted by the action of a coil
spring, against which the governor weights work at all times. An
automatic spark advance may be obtained from 18-57 degrees with
•this construction.

Herz Governor Coupling. — In this automatic advance coupling,
the driving relation between the driving member B and the arma-
ture driving plate B is determined by the position of the steel
ball G. As the speed increases, the ball moves outward in its
guiding groove because of centrifugal force and the armature
driving member is displaced in its angular relation to the driving
plate B so that the spark time is advanced. The coil spring E
controls the relative angular displacement of the coupling parts.

Low Tension Magneto Troubles. — Trouble is sometimes ex-
perienced with the low tension magneto, which is shown in section
at Fig. 122. The form shown uses plain bearings and as these
require considerable lubricant it is possible for the collecting
brushes or a^rmature winding to 'become oil soaked which inter-
feres with proper delivery of current. It is also important to
time the low tension magneto so the contact points of the igniter
plate in the cylinder will separate when the armature of the
magneto has attained its position of maximum current genera-
tion. This will be considered in detail in connection with the high
tension magneto as will other magneto troubles, so it is not neces-
sary to consider them at this time. It is important that the con-
tact brush shown bearing against the side of the armature and the
contact member A, be making a positive connection with the parts
they are intended to bear against. Failure of the low tension
magneto to deliver current is usually due to poor contact at these
points which may be produced by particles of foreign matter or
which may result if the springs maintaining the parts in contact
'^e lost their elasticity. Generally the trouble is gummed oil

Magneto Ignition Troubles . 22&

whieh is easily removed with gasoline. Sometimes the current de-
livered by the armattire short circuits because of a cracked or oil
soaked insulator which carries the contact rod C. Ignition trou-
bles will also result if the wiring to switch or bus bar is defective
or if connections are loose (Pig. 123).

High Tension Maigneto Troubles. — In case of trouble with a
magneto the point to be determined, first of all, is whether the
fault is with the current generatorj if it is a true high tension

Fig. 122. — Sectloiial View Sliowlitg Constmctlon of Locomobile Lot
T«iu1mi Magneto.

form or in the plugs, or in the event of a transformer coil
being employed, if that member is at fault. In cases where
only one cylinder is firing irregularly the fault is very likely
to be with the spark plug in that cylinder. The common troubles •
of spark plugs "and the method of repairing them have been pre-
viously described. After the spark plugs have received atten-
tion the cables must be tested to make sure that the insulation is
not injured -in any way or that the metal terminals at the end
of the cable do not come in contact with any metal parts of the

230 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

motor or magneto. If the ignition fails suddenly, one can suspect
a short circuit in the grounding cable, which is connected to the
nut on the magneto contact breaker and which serves for switching
the ignition off. This may be easily ascertained by removing the
cable from the magneto and seeing if its removal enables the mag-
neto to run correctly. A spark leaping the gap in the safety de-
vice indicates a broken vnre or one that has become disconnected
either from the plug terminal or from the distributor terminal.

Switch

Battery

■IP
Magneto

Coa

Battery

Fig. 123. — ^Low Tension Ignition System for Four Cylinder Motor, Util-
izes Battery and Magneto for Current Production. Note Simple
Wiring — ^All Conductors Convey Only Low Tension Current.

If the cables and plugs are in good condition and the engine
works irregularly, it is apparent that the trouble is in the magnet
if it is an ignition fault. In event of this, the most important thing
to do is to make sure of the proper interruption of the primary cur-
rent. The spring holding the cover of the contact breaker in place
should be moved sideways and the brass cover taken off. It is then
important to see if the screw holding the contact breaker to the
armature shaft is tight. If this is found to be set up properly the

Magneto Ignition Trebles

231

next thing is to make sure that the contact hreaker points are in
contact when the hell crank lever is out of contact with the cam
in the sides of the breaker box in the type Bosch DU-4 or away
from the fibre cam rollers in the type D-4. It is also important
that the platinum points are separated by the proper distance,
about .5 millimeter, where the lever C F at A, Fig. 124, is in
contact with the earn. If the points are too far apart they should
be brought nearer together by loosening the lock nut on the ad-

Tig. 124 — OMUtructlon of Bosch Contact Breaker Made Clear at A.
B — How t4 C3eaii Contact Breaker Points. C — Bosch Contact
Breakei Aasemlily Bemoved from Armatuie. D — The Bemy Contact
Breaker.

282 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

justing Bcrew shown at C, and screwing it up to lessen the
difference, or to screw it back and open the gap if it is not suffi-
cient. The platinum contact points must also be cleaned, any
dirt or oil being easily removed, as shown at B, by gasoline

squirted on them from a small hand oil can. In case the contacts
are uneven, pitted or blackened, they must be smoothed -with a jew-
eler's fine cut file. After continued use, if the platinum points
have worn down the platinum-pointed screw must be renewed. It
also important to make sure that the high tension current col-
ing brush is in contact with the collector ring, and that the

Magneto Ignition Troubles 238

conducting pencil makes proper contact with the brush, against
which it bears. The interior of the distributor must be clean and
free of metallic or carbonaceous matter. T'he distributing brush
must bear positively against the distributor section and the in-
terior of the distributor should be smooth and all contacts clean
and bright.

Mention has been previously made of making sure that the
screw which keeps the contact breaker assembly in proper relation
with the armature shaft is tight, which calls for careful examina-
tion. If this screw is loose, the contact breaker assembly will not
move in proper timed relation with the armature ; in fact, it may
not move at all, which will prevent the contact point from separat-
ing and which will also result in failure of the ignition. If every-
thing appears to be all right about the magneto, the timing should
be verified to make sure that the spark is occurring at the right
time in the engine cylinders. * It is easy to tell if the magneto i§
producing a spark of proper intensity by uncoupling a spark plug
conductor and holding it a short distance away, not more than
J^" from the terminal. If a magneto is functioning properly a
spark will jump the air gap thus created.

At Fig. 124, D, the contact breaker and distributor construction
of the Remy magneto is shown. It will be observed, in this ca^e,
that the contact breaker assembly does not rotate, as in the Bosch,
but that a rotating two-point cam is attached to the armature shaft
and interrupts the contact between the points P by bearing against
the end of the bell crank CP. The instructions given for care of
the Bosch magneto apply just as well to this device. Eealizing the
importance of having the gap between the contact breaker points
of the proper amount, the magneto manufacturers furnish gauges
which are to be used for testing this gap. That shown at Fig.
126, A, is for use with the Eisemann magneto. With the contact
breaker removed, as indicated at B, the contact points C-4 should
be together as indicated. When the gauge is inserted in the hole
C-7 it will indicate the correct amount the point should be sepa-
rated. The gauge at Fig. 126, C, is merely a piece of thin sheet
steel of the proper thickness which is used as indicated when the
points are separated by the bell crank lever riding on the cam block.

234 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

GAUGE
\

C 2 c; ,

)

■fi

^---': =

^^\ / — *"''"°^

pv^

^^s?

PLATINUM POINTS

Secharging Weak Mag;nets. — A£ter a high tension magneto
has been in use for a time the magnets lose their strength and it
is necessary to recharge them in order to restore the magneto to
its full eftteiency. When magnets are weak the resulting secondary

Recharging Weak Magnets 285

spark will also be weak and the motor will not run regularly, no
matter how carefully the device is adjusted. If the motor does run
without misfiring it will not develop its full power if the magnets
are weak. An electro-magnet designed to operate on 110-volt cur-
rent is shown at Fig. 127, A. The core is of soft iron, 1" in di-
ameter and 8^" long. They are drilled at the bottom for a retain-
ing screw, which is intended to keep them in contact with a base
plate of steel 4>^"x9". Two blocks of steel I^"x2"x4" are
drilled to receive the cores, and have set screws in the side so they
can be clamped tightly against the core to form polepieces. A
brass tube about Xe" thick at the side, having flanges at each end
projecting over to hold fiber insulating plates as shown, may be
turned to the dimensions indicated in a lathe or may be made up
of sheet stock if desired. The hole through the. center of the brass
spool is of such size as to permit the core to fit freely in its interior.
Besides this equipment, 22 lbs. of No. 20 B. & S. gauge insulated
copper wire will be needed. Eleven pounds is wound around each
brass tube, winding one coil in one direction and the other the
opposite way. Leave about 6" of wire when starting to wind the
coil in order to make a connection between them. After both coils
have been wound shellac them thoroughly and wind insulating tape
over the outside. The cores are then fastened to the iron base
plate, the coils are slipped over the cores and the pole pieces at-
tached to keep the coils in place. The view of the completed mag-
net is clearly shown in the assembly. This can only be used with
110 volts direct current.

Before recharging the generator magnet it is important to test
the polarity of the electro-magnet, as the north pole of the magnet
to be charged must be brought in contact with the south pole of
the electro-magnet and vice versa. It is not difficult to ascertain
the polarity by using an ordinary compass or magnetic needle, the
marked pole of which will point toward the north. Once the
polarity has been determined the poles may be marked in any de-
sired way, usually by stamping the north pole N and the south
pole S. Another magnet-charging device, which was described in
the Commercial Motor, utilizes storage batteries as a source of
magnetizing current. The magnets are composed of soft iron cor^

286 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

ng. 127. — Magnet Becliaiglns Devices.

pieces about 6" long and 1" in diameter. The base ia constructed
of mild steel plate, the cores being fastened to the plates by screws
or by turning down the end of the core and threading it to fit the
hole in the base plate. Before screwing down the core pieces they
"i-e wound with No. 22 gauge insulated wire, the ends being left

Recharging Weak Magnets

287

free. The wires are connected up to a pair of storage batteries, as
shown, and the latter are so connected up that the polarity of the
soft iron cores are north and south respectively. Enough of the
wire is wound on to have coib of about 2" in diameter. If the
core shows signs of over-
heating, low-voltage
lamps should be placed
in the circuit to intro-
duce some resistance.
The voltage of the lamp
to be used depends en-
tirely upon the voltage
of the battery used to
enei^ize the magnet. It
is stated that the mag-
nets will be charged if
they are merely placed
in contact with the ener-
gized cores until they
have absorbed sufficient
magnetism to enable
them to sustain a weight
of 20 lbs., after which
they are ready to be
replaced on the mag-
neto. This is shown at
Pig. 127, B.

The illustration at C,
Pig. 127, shows the
Seanor garage magnet
charging outfit, which is claimed to charge the magnet in one
minute. From the exterior view of the device it will be evident
that it consists of a base upon which are mounted two solenoid
coils carried in square boxes. The magnets to bo charged are in-
serted through the center of these coils during the energizing
process. In order to accommodate a horseshoe magnet of any
spread, one of the coil boxes is mounted so the distance between the

g. 12B. — Methods of Testing Magnet
StreagtH After Becharging. A — With
Spring Balance. B — With Magnetometer.

238 Starting, lAghting and Ignition Systems

two openings ia altered if desired. As ordinarily constructed, the
windings are wound for 6 volts and 20 amperes. In charging a
ma^et the ends of the horseshoe are brought up against an iron
core of the coil in such position that the magnet is attracted and
not repelled by the core. The magnet is then pushed through the
apertures in the centers
of the coil boxes, taking
the place of the iron
core, which is slowly
pushed out. The cur-
rent is then connected
for merely the length of
time required in touch-
ing one of the terminals
of the wire to the bind-
ii^ post two or three
times, A keeper is then
laid across the part of
the magnet arch which
projects beyond the coil
boxes, and with the
keeper still in place the
magnet is replaced on
the magneto. It is
stated that a freshly
charged Tungsten steel
magnet of a large mag-
neto will lift in the
neighborhood of 20 lbs.
as ordinarily energized

Pig, 129. — How to Test tH^gneto wlttl Spaik
Pings Undei Air ProBsure,

by the magneto manufacturer. It is stated that with this device*
the magnet puE can be increased to 30 lbs., which, of course,
means a stronger magnetic field when reassembled on the magneto.
The strength of a repaired magneto can be easily tested by the
simple device shown at Fig, 129, Spark plugs are screwed into aii
air-tight box with glass cover and air is pumped into the box so that
a pressure of 100 pounds is shown on gauge, The spark plugs are

Magneto Application 889

connected to the distributor contacts. The armature is revolved by

any suitable means and sparks should jump the spark plug air gaps.

Application of Typical Magneto Fomw. — The usual method

of instalUog a magneto is to place it on a bracket fastened to the

Fig. 130. — Conyentional Methods of Placing and DrlTlng Ma^fnetOH. A —
System Used on Segal Engines. B — Magneto Driven from Pump
Sbaft Estetiiiion.

engine base so the contact breaker and distributor will be handy
for immediate inspection or adjustment. It is desirable to place
the device on the inlet side of the engine and as far away from the
exhaust piping as possible, because of the excess heat -which exists
at this point is liable to injure the insulation of the windings.

240 Starting J Lighting and Ignition Systems

Methods of installation which are typical of conventional practice
are shown at Fig. 130. At A the magneto is placed on a cast bracket
formed integral with the top half of the engine base and is driven
from the timing case at the front of the engine by a length of
shaft. At B the magneto is also housed at the rear end and is
carried on a base plate formed integrally with one of the crank-case
supporting arms. The drive is by an extension of the pump shaft,
that member being driven by suitable gearing in the cam-shaft
timing gear casing.

Gear drive is the best method of driving a magneto armature
and direct spur-gear connection is better than either bevel or spiral
gear trains because it is the best wearing form of gearing. Silent
chains may be used for driving if some form of adjustment is pro-
vided to compensate for chain stretch. When a magneto is driven
hy a shaft, as shown at Fig. 132, A and B, it is customary to pro-
vide some sort of a universal joint or Oldham coupling between the
armature and the driving member in order that any inaccuracies
in alignment of the driving shaft will not stress the ball bearings
supporting the armature. It is desirable to protect the instrument
from oil or water by placing it in a case of fiber or leather, and in
modern types the contact breaker and distributor housings are
closed by easily removed and yet practically dust-tight coverings.

Metallic or carbon particles and dirty oil may cause internal
short circuiting and it is desirable to have the contact-maker case
and the distributor cover arranged in such a way that they may
he easily reached for cleaning. Modern magnetos are usually
secured in some way that will permit a ready removal. In that
shown at A, Fig. 130, a number of through bolts are screwed from
the under side of the bracket into the magneto base and it is neces-
sary to remove these before the magneto can be lifted off its
support. The method shown at Fig. 130, B, is preferable as the
ignition device may be removed from the base by slackening one
nut on the hinge* bolt which keeps the metallic strap tight, thus
holding the magneto in place.

Various other methods of utilizing strap members are shown at
Fig. 133. In that shown at A the strap is made in two pieces and
is held together at the top by a clamp bolt. The method of securing

Magneto Installation 241

a magneto shown at B is practically the same, except that the
retention member is a small knob which can be easily turned by
the hand. At C the strap encircles the magneto completely and
is held in place by a single nut under the bracket. A modification

rig. 131. — How Alagneto Is Installed on 1916 JeSerr Four Fowei Plant.

of this method is depicted at D. The strap, in this instance, is
just bent oyer the arch of the magnets and held in place by the
long swinging bolt -which is hinged at the bottom of the magneto.
One of the simplest methods of driving a magneto is that shown
at Fig. 17 (Chap. I), which is a bottom view of the Ford engi- ■

242 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

case. The stationary coils of the magneto are attached to the
crank case, and the revolving magnets rotate with the fly wheel,
which in turn is securely attached to the crank shaft. With this
form of drive there can be no interruption in current generation
and there are no gears, chains, or other connections to wear and
produce noise or interfere with generation of current.

"When the magneto was first introduced it was looked upon with
suspicion by the motoring public. Therefore some designers com-
promise and furnish two separate systems, ope composed of a
magneto, the other an auxiliary group comprising a battery, timer
and coil, which supply the current to a set of spark plugs distinct
from those supplied from the magneto. It was found difficult
with some types of magnetos to start the engine directly from
magneto current so the battery outfit was depended upon for
starting the engine as well as emergency service. The parts of the
modern high-tension magneto have been simplified and strength-
ened and as the various parts may be removed easily and replaced
without trouble and special care taken so the adjustments and
cleaning necessary may be easily understood by the layman, there
is very little liability at the present time of a magneto giving out
without warning.

"When a magneto is installed some precautions are necessary
relating to wiring and also the character of the spark plugs em-
ployed. The conductor should be of good quality, have ample
insulation, and be well protected from accumulations of oil which
would tend to decompose rubber insulation. It is customary- to.
protect the wiring by running it through the conduits of fiber or
metal tubing lined with insulating material, as shown at Fig. 134.
Multiple strand cables should be used for both primary and sec-
ondary wiring and the insulation should be of rubber at least %6
inch thick.

The spark plugs commonly used for battery and coil ignition
cannot always be employed when a magneto is fitted. The current
produced by the mechanical generator has a greater amperage and
more heat value than that obtained from transformer coils excited
by battery current. The greater heat may burn or fuse the slender
'nts used on some battery plugs and heavier electrodes are needed

Magneto Installation

Fig. 132. — Typical Magneto Installations. A — Simttts Magneto o
wnU Motor. B — Bosch B IT 4 on Wtllte "15" Engine.

244 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

to resist the heating effect of the more intense arc. While the
current has greater amperage it is not of as high potential or
voltage as that commonly produced by the secondary winding of
an induction coil, and it cannot overcome as much of a gap. Man-
ufacturers of magneto plugs usually set the spark points about %4
of an inch apart. The most efficient magneto plug has a plurality
of points so that when the distance between one set becomes too
great the spark will take place between one of the other pairs of
electrodes which are not separated by so great an air space.

Timing Magneto Ignition Systems.— An ideal method of mag-
neto placing and one followed by a large number of manufacturers
is shown at Pig. 132, B. In this the device is fitted to a four-cylinder
engine, and as the armature must be driven at the same speed as
the crankshaft, it is necessary to use but one extra gear, that being
the same size as the engine shaft pinion tod driven by the cam-
shaft speed reduction gear. The sketch. Pig. 135, illustrajbes the
best method of timing the magneto, which is one of the direct
high-tension type. The position of the various parts is clearly
shown. Having fixed the magneto to the engine crankcase, the
driving pinion, or one of the members of a flange or Oldham
coupling, is put loosely on the tapered end of the armature shaft,
and the cover to the distributor and the dust cover of the contact
breaker are removed to allow one to control the position of the
armature. The motor is now turned over by hand so the piston
in the first cylinder is at top center, which can be determined
either by watching the crankshaft through a suitable opening in
the engine base, by reading the marks on the flywheel rim, or by
inserting a wire through a compression relief petcock or spark
plug hole, if either of these is at the top of the cylinder.

The armature of the magneto is then brought to the position
indicated in sketch, which represents the fitting of a magneto
that is turning clockwise when viewed from the driving end. The
distance between the end of the armature and the pole piece should
be between 14 and 17 mm or between .5511 inch and .6692 inch.

(See Pig. 95.) This represents an advance of about .5 inch on a
motor with a five-inch stroke. A graphic chart, prepared by the

^osch Company and reproduced at Pig. 136, shows the relation

Magneto Installation

S45

Clamp Boft.

Sttap

Strap

^^WijR-=r-=\ Strap

Strap

Fig. 133.— Simple Methods of Holding Magnetos In Place on Engine
Base to Permit of Easy Removal of Apparatus when Desired.

246 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

between piston travel and crankshaft movement for engines of
different strokes very clearly. The armature is uncovered by re-
moving the flat easing cover, lying between the horseshoe mag-
nets, this often carrying the safety spark gap, ^and normally serv-
ing as a lid. If earlier timing be desired for any special purpose
the gap may be widened a trifle, if it be thought the timing is too

aPARR-FInOSS

far advanced, the gap may be lessened. The. contact breaker is
fully advanced at this time and the contact points are just about
to separate. Having placed everything in position as described,
tighten the coupling on the taper shaft and ream out for a small
taper pin.

The connections to the various cylinders must be made in the

-^rder they fire (see following tabulation). When the cover to the

itributor is off, see at which segment tb*? brush ia contactin^g.

Magneto Timing Practice

Tig. 135. — Simplified DiagTam Explaining Method of Timing Magneto
Ignition System.

The wire to the spark plug in the first cylinder is then led to the
terminal corresponding to this segment. Then the plug in the
cylinder that is next to fire is coupled to the next segment, and
so on. The numhera on the distributor show the order in which
the various contacts are brought in contact with the rotating dis-
tributing brush, and not that in which the cylinders fire. In the
sketch the cylinders fire 1-2-4-3. Therefore, the segment num-

248 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

3 35t 4 4^2 5 SVz Q evz 7 7>4 8
Stroke in inches.

Fig. 136. — Bosch Chart for Determining Advance with Various Piston

Strokes.

ber 3 is coupled to the plug in cylinder 4, and the segment 4 is
connected to the plug in cylinder 3, which is thus the last to fire
if the explosion takes place first in cylinder 1. The direction of

Magneto Timing Practice 249

the distributor brush rotation, if driven by the usual form of gear-
ing, is opposite to that of the magneto armature. Obviousl;, if
one cylinder is timed correctly, the remaining members will also
fire at the proper time in the cycle of operations. The positions
of the armature, distributing brush, contact breaker cam and

Left Hud Kagotta. Ri^l Bind M>in«o.

Looklnc 11 UichlDi from Drivinf LookinE it Michine from Drivini

End Painu (S) ibont lo Optn u End. PoinU (S) ibout to Opmi w

Aimiturc Core leivei Pole Piece Armalure Core le»n Pole Piece

■bout 1/18", Segment juK under Bruih. ibout lA"". Segment juit under I

Fig. 137. — Explaining Uethod of Timing Splltdorf Magneto.

engine piston are easily ascertained by inspection of drawing. The
methods of timing Splitdorf magnetos are shown at Fig. 137.

Firing Order of Typical Engines. — The following information
relative to timing of leading 1914 and 1915 models of American
manufacture will prove of great value to the repairman called
upon to repair many different makes of cars. It is well to remem-
ber, if the firing order is not known, that it can be easily determined
by following the inlet valve movements in the cylinders and noting
the order of opening of these members.

250 Starting J Lighting and Ignition Systems

ABBOTT-DETROIT.
34-40 AND 44-50 — ^Fibing Obdeb 1-3-4-2.

Belle Isle — Fibino Obdeb 1-6-3-6-2-4.

Magneto Setting — Piston dead centre, lever fully retarded. Full advance,
spark occurs with crankshaft 13 degrees ahead of dead centre. Contact
point gap .018 inch.

ALLEN.

40 — FiBiNG Obdeb 1-2-4-3.
Magneto Setting — ^Piston top dead centre, lever fully retarded.

AMERICAN.

Scout — Fibing Obdeb 1-3-4-2.

644, 646 AND 666 — FntiNG Obdeb 1-5-3-6-2-4.
Magneto Setting — Three-quarter inch after dead centre on flywheeL

ARBENZ.

Fibing Obdeb 1-3-4-2.
Magneto Setting — ^Piston .03125 inch late, lever fully retarded.

AUBURN.

4-40 AND 4-41 — Fibing Obdeb 1-3-4-2.
Magneto Setting — ^Piston .03125 inch late, lev^r fully retarded.

6-46 AND 6-45 — Fibing Obdeb 1-4-2-6-3-5.
Magneto Setting — Piston top dead centre, lever fully retarded.

BUICK.

B 24, 25, 36, 37 and 38^Fibing Obdeb 1-3-4-2.

Delco— With timer cam fully retarded, spark occurs 40 degrees past
•upper dead centre on firing stroke. With hand spark lever half-way ad-
vanced, spark occurs at approximately top dead centre.

B 55— Fibing Obdeb 1-4-2-6-3-6.
Delco— Piston dead centre with timer fully retarded.

Typical Firing Orders

251

Left mM

' — — ^ ( — ^"^"^

Fig. 138. — Typical Firing Orders of Eight Cylinder V Engine.

252 Starting J Lighting and Ignition Systems

CASE.

26 R AND 35 S — Firing Obdeb 1-3-4-2.
Magneto Sefcting — ^One thirty-second inch before top dead centre.

40 O — Firing Order 1-3-4-2.
Magneto Setting — One-sixteenth inch after top dead centre.

CHALMERS.

24 — ^Firing Order 1-4-2-6-3-5.

Magneto. Setting — One and one-half inches past centre, lever fully re-
tarded.

CHANDLER.

Six — Firing Order 1-5-3-6-2-4.
Magneto Setting — Piston dead centre, lever fully retarded.

COLE.

FouB — Firing Order 1-3-4-2.
Six — Firing Order 1-6-3-6-2-4.

Delco — Piston dead centre, distributor fully retarded.

CONTINENTAL.

27 — Firing Order 1-3-4-2.
Magneto Setting — ^Three-quarter inch after dead centre on flywheel.

GLIDE.

36 AND 30 — Firing Order 1-3-4-2.
Westinghouse — Piston top dead centre.

GRANT.

M — Firing Order 1-3-4-2.

Magneto Setting — ^Lever fully advanced, piston ,3125 inch before top
4ead centre.

HATNES.

28 — Firing Order 1-3-4-2.
Magneto Setting — One sixty-fourth inch advanced on down stroke.

26 AND 27 — Firing Order 1-4-2-6-3-5.
Magneto Setting — One sixty-fourth inch advanced on down stroke. "

Typical Firing Orders 258

HUDSON.
6-40 AND 6-54 — ^FiBiNG Order 1-5-3-6-2-4.

HUPMOBILE.

32 — ^Firing Order 1-2-4-3.
Magneto Setting — Piston dead centre, lever fully retarded.

IMPEEIAL.

34 F B, 32 AND 34 4 M— Firing Order 1-2-4-3.
54 and 44-6 — Firing Order 1-5-3-6-2-4.

Magneto Setting — Points break with piston on dead centre.

INTER-STATE.
45 — Firing Order 1^-3-6-2-4.

JACKSON.

Majestic and Olympic — Firing Order 1-3-4-2.
Magneto Setting — ^Piston .125 inch before top centre,

SuLTANic — Firing Order 1-5-3-6-2-4.
Magneto Setting — Piston .125 inch before top centre.

JEFFERT.

93 — ^Firing Order 1-3-4-2.
96 — ^Firing Order 1-4-2-6-3-5.

Magneto Setting — ^Piston dead centre, lever fully retarded.

KEETON.
F— Firing Order 1-5-3-6-2-4.
Magneto Setting — Points break 6.5 degrees before centre.

KING.

B — Firing Order 1-3-4-2.

Magneto Setting — ^Points break with lever fully retarded from centre
to .5 inch past on flywheel.

KNOX.

44 AND 45 — Firing Order 1-3-4-2.

Magneto Setting — Piston .75 inch before top centre, lever fully r*-
tarded. Battery, piston .375 inch before top centre.

254 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

KBIT.

L — ^FntiNG Order 1-3-4-2.

Magneto Setting — Piston .125 inch before top dead centre, lever fully
retarded.

LEWIS.

Six — Firing Order 1-5-3-6-2-^.

Magneto Setting — Piston top dead centre, lever fully retarded. Pull
advance equals .234375 inch of piston stroke.

LOCOMOBILE.

48 LD AND RD, 38 RD and LD— Firing Order l-5-3-ft-2-4.

Magneto Setting — ^Three-eighths to .4375 inch before top dead centre,
lever fully advanced.

LOZIER.

Four — Firing Order 1-3-4-2.
77 — Firing Order 1-4-2-6-3-5.
Magneto Setting — Piston dead centre, lever fully retarded.

LrONS-KNIGHT.

K4 — Firing Order 1-3-4-2.

Magneto has six-inch range on 20-inch flywheel from one inch past centre
to five inches before.

MAXWELL.

25-4 AND 35-4 — Firing Order 1-3-4-2.

50-6 — ^Firing Order 1-4-2-6-3-5.

Magneto Setting — Points break with piston on dead centre, lever fully
retarded.

MOLINE-KNIGHT.

26-50 — Firing Order 1-3-4-2.
Magneto Setting — Piston top dead centre.

MOON.

42 — Firing Order— 1-3^ 4-2.
6-50 — ^Firing Ordep 1-5-3-6-2-4.
Delco— Spark breaks on centre in retarded position.

Typical Firing Orders 255

NATIONAL.

40 — Firing Obdeb 1-3-4-2.

Magneta Setting — ^Piston .0625 inch past top dead centre, lever fully
retarded.

Six — FiBiNQ Obdeb 1-5-3-6-2-4.

Magneto Setting — ^Piston .125 inch before top dead centre, lever fully
retarded.

NOEWALK.

C AND D — FiBiNG Obdeb 1-4-2-6-3-5.

Atwater Kent — ^Piston is .093 inch past centre with distributor set at
retard.

OLDSMOBILE.

54 — FiBiNG Obdeb 1-5-3-6-2-4.

Delco— Spark occurs at piston dead centre with hand spark lever fully
retarded or .390625 before dead centre with lever fully advanced.

OVERLAND.

79 — FiBiNG Obdeb 1-3-4-2.

Magneto Setting — One and one-quarter inches after dead centre (fly-
wheel), lever fully retarded.

PACKARD.

2-38 — FiBiNG Obdeb 1-4-2-6-3-5.
Magneto Setting — Piston .5 inch before top- centre, lever fully advanced.

PAIGE,

25 AND 36 — FiBiNG Obdeb 1-3-4-2.

Magneto Setting — ^Place No. 4 piston on top dead centre (Compression
stroke). Points should just begin to break.

PIERCE- ARROW.

Sixes — Fibing Obdeb 1-5-3-6-2-4.

Magneto Setting — Magneto mark on flywheel should be 4.8125 inches
ahead of 1 and 6 top centre and 1 showing in timing window. Piston is
.5 inch before top dead centre of 33 degrees of crank circle. Battery
spark occurs with piston 2.125 inches before top dead centre or 75 degrees
of crank circle with spark lever fully advanced.

256 Starting J Lighting and Ignition Systems

PILOT.

50 — ^FiMNQ Obdeb 1-3-4-2.
60 — Firing Obder 1-5-3-6-2-4.

Magneto Setting — Points break with lever fully, retarded and piston on
dead centre.

POPE-HARTFORD.

35 — Firing Order 1-2-4-3.

Magneto Setting-— Piston top dead centre. Maximum advance of magneto
.5 inch on piston travel.

PREMIER.

6-48 AND Weidely — Firing Order 1-4-2-6^-3-6.
Magneto Setting — Piston dead centre, lever fully retarded.

REGAL.

C, T, N AND NO— Firing Order 1-2-4-3.
Magneto Setting — Piston top dead centre, lever fully retarded,

REO.

Fifth — Firing Order 1-3-4>-2.

Remy System — ^Piston top dead centre when indexing button on distri-
butor engages.

SAXON.

A — Firing Order 1-3-4-2.
Atwater Kent — Piston dead centre, distributor fully retarded.

SIMPLEX.

38 AND 50 — Firing Order 1-3-4-2.
Magneto Setting — Piston .015625 inch before top dead centre.

75 — Firing Order 1-3-4-2.
Magneto Setting — Piston dead centre or slightly after.

SPEEDWELL.

H — Firing Order 1-5-3-6-2-4.

Magneto Setting — Points break with piston at top dead centre.

Rotary — Firing Order 1-5-3-6-^2-4.

Magneto Setting — One-sixteenth inch after top dead centre, lever fully
retarded.

Typical Firing Orders 257

STEAENS-KNIGHT.

FouB — FisiNo Obdeb 1-2-4-3.
Six — Firing Obdeb 1-5-3-6-2-4.

Magneto Setting — Piston top dead centre, points breaking.

STEVENS-DUBYEA.

C 6 — Firing Obdeb 1-4-2-6-3-5.

Magneto Setting — Figure 1 showing in timing window, 25 degrees before
top dead centre (flywheel).

STUDEBAKER.

FouB — FiBiNG Obdeb 1-3-4-2.
Six — FiBiNQ Obdeb 1-5-3-6-2-4.

Remy System — Spark occurs .75 inch after top dead centre.

VELIE.

5 and 9 — FiBiNG Obdeb 1-3-4-2.
10 — FiBiNG Obdeb 1-5-3-6-2-4.

Magneto Setting — ^Piston top dead centre.

WINTON.

Six — FiBiNG Obdeb 1-5-3-6-2-4.

Magneto Setting — Piston !125 inch after top dead centre, lever fully re-
tarded and points breaking.

■J

CHAPTER IV

ELEMENTABY ELECTBIC STABTEB PBINCIPLES

Types of Self -Starters Defined — One Unit Systems — ^Two Unit Systems —
Three Unit Systems — Parts of Systems and Functions — Generator
Types — Current Begulating Means — ^Methods of Cranking Engine —
Starting Switches — ^Indicators — ^Boiler Clutches — ^Miscellaneous Devices.

Electric lighting, cranking and ignition systems for motor cars
are of such recent development that it is not possible to describe
all systems used for this purpose. Not only do the individual
systems vary in detail, but the components of the same system are
often of different construction when used on cars of different
makes. The standard equipment must include three important
functions, namely, the generator which is driven by the engine
end which produces electric current to keep a storage battery
charged, and the starting motor which is in mechanical connec-
tion with the engine and in electrical connection with the storage
battery when it is desired to turn the engine over for starting.
If the motor and generator are combined in one instrument the
starting system is known as a one unit type. If the motor is one
appliance and the generator another, the system is said to be a
two unit system. Each of these has advantages, and both forms
have demonstrated that they are thoroughly practical. In addi-
tion to the three main items enumerated, various accessories, such
as switches, ammeters, connectors, wiring, protective circuit
breakers, automatic current regulators, etc., are necessary for the
convenient distribution and control of the electric current. The
arrangement of the parts of a typical one unit system in which
the motor-generator is used only for starting and lighting is shown
at Pig. 139. This shows the location of the various parts in their
relation to the other components of the motor car. The motor

258

Elementary Starting Principles 259

generator is niounted at the side of the engine, and is driven by
the magneto drive shaft as at A, Fig. 140, when used as a gen-
erator, and serves to drive the engine through this means when
it is used as a motor. The ignition current is supplied from an in-
dependent source, a high tension magneto. The starting switch
and that controlling the lighting system are placed on the dash,
while the storage battery is carried under the floor of the tonneaii.
This system, which is tnown as the Entz, will be described more
in detail in following chapter. Latest practice is tp use the direct
silent chain drive as at Fig. 140, B.

The elements of a one unit system are shown in diagram form
at the left of Pig. 141. It will be observed that the armature ear-

Fig. 139. — Phantom View of AutomobUe Touilng Car Showing Iiocatlon
of Parts of One Unit Starting and Lighting System.

riea two commutators, one of which is used when the armature is
driven by the engine and .when the device serves as a current
generator, the other being employed when the operating conditions
are reversed and the electrical machine is acting as a motor to turn
over the engine crankshaft. ■ When the device is driven as a gen-
erator the small sliding pinion on the short end of the shaft is
out of engagement with the spur gear cut on the flywheel ex-
terior. When it is desired to start the engine the spur gear is
meshed with the member cut on the flywheel and the current
from the storage battery is directed to the windings of the electric
machine which becomes a motor and which turns over the eng^-

260 Starting^ lAghting and Ignition Systems

Elementary Starting Principles 261

crankshaft. "When the device is working as a generator the cur-
rent that is developed goes to the storage battery, and from that
member to the various current consuming units.

Sometimes the motor and generator are combined in one casing
and the system so provided is erroneously called a "one unit"
system. This construction is shown at the right of Fig. 141. In
reality such a system is a two unit system, because the electrical
machines are uni-functional instead of performing a dual function
as does the eombined-motor-generator at the right of the illus-

Tig. 111. — Simpllfled Diagiun Showing Opeiatloa of One Unit SyBtem at
A and Two Aimatnro Ono Unit System at B.

tration. The wiring of the one unit system is shown in simplified
form and should be easily followed by any repairman. The parts
of a two unit starting and lighting system are shown at Fig. 142.
This system is sometimes called a "three unit" system, on account
of having a source of independent current supply for ignition
purposes. This is shown as fitted to the Overland sis'cylinder en-
gine at Fig. 143. As will be observed, the generator in the dia-
gram is driven from the motor crankshaft by silent chain con-
nections, one o£ the terminals passing through the «ut-out devic

262 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

and to the storage battery, the other terminal running directly
to the storage battery terminal having a short by-pass or shunt
wire attached to the cut-out. All the time that the engine is
running the generator is delivering electricity to the storage
battery.

It will be seen that the storage battery is also coupled to
the lighting circuits which are shown in a group at the right of
the illustration, and to the electric starting motor as indicated.
One of the storage battery terminals is joined directly to the switch

SUDrNG MQTOT? SWITCH

SIDE
^^ HEAD

LAMPS

FLYWHEEL
GEAR

sBiEK h;jg§

Fig. 142. — Simplified Diagram to Show Arrangement of Parts of Two
Unit Starting and Lighting System with High Tension Magneto for
Ignition Purposes.

terminal by a suitable conductor, the other goes to one of the
terminals on the starting motor, while the remaining terminal of
the starting motor goes to the switch. In this system, when the
small sliding pinion is meshed with the flywheel gear, the switch
is thrown on simultaneously, and the curl-ent that flows from the
storage battery through the windings of the starting motor rotates
the engine crankshaft by means of reduction gears shown. As soon
as the engine starts the foot is released and a spring pulls the
switch out of contact, and also disengages the sliding pinion from
the flywheel gear.

Elementary Starting Principles

Fig. 143.^-IlluBtiatioi] Staowing Location of Starting, Ligliting atid Igni-
tion Units on tUe Overland Six Cylinder Engine.

264 Starting^ Lighting and Ignition Systems

The actual appearance of a motor fitted with a two unit motor
starting ignition and lighting system is shown at Fig. 144. It will
be observed that the generator is driven from the pumpshaft es-
tension by a leather universal joint, while the starting motor is
mounted at the back end of the crankshaft in such a position that
the automatic sliding pinion may be brought into engagement with

Fig. 144. — ^Moliue-Knlght Power Pliiut Showiog Application of Starting
Motor wltb Automatic Pinion Sliift and Method of Driving Gen-

the flywheel driving gear. Electrical starting systems are usually
operated on either six- or twelve-volt current, the former being
generally favored because the six-volt lamps use heavier filaments
than those of high voltage, and are not so likely to break, due to
vibration. It is also easier to install a six-volt battery, as this is
the standard voltage that has been used for several years for igni-
tion and electric lighting purposes before the starting motors were
appKed.

Starting System Definitions ' 265

In referring to a system as a one unit system of lighting,
starting and ignition, one means that all of these functions are
incorporated in one device, as in the Delco system. If one unit
is used for generating the lighting and starting current, and also
is reversible to act as a motor, but a separate ignition means is
provided such as a high tension magneto, the system is called a
*Hwo unit'' system. The same designation applies to a system
when the current generating and ignition functions are performed
by one appliance, and where a separate starting motor is used.
The three unit system is that in which a magneto is employed for
ignition, a generator for supplying the lighting and starting cur-
rent, and a motor for turning over the engine crankshaft. Be-
fore describing the individual systems it would be well to review
briefly the various components common to all systems.

The generator, as is apparent from its name, is utilized for
producing current. This is usually a miniature dynamo patterned
largely after those that have received wide application for gener-
ating current for electric lighting of our homes and factories.
The generators of the different systems vary in construction. Some
have a permanent magnetic field, while others have an excited field.
In the former case permanent horseshoe magnets are used as in
a magneto. In the other construction the field magnets, as well
as the armature, are wound with coils of wire. In all cases the
dynamo or generator should be mechanically driven from the
engine crankshaft either by means of a direct drive, by silent
chain, or through the medium of the timing or magneto operating
gears. Belts are apt to slip and are not reliable.

All the current produced by the generator and not utilized by
the various current consuming units such as the lamps, ignition
system, electric horn, etc., is accumulated or stored in the storage
battery, and kept in reserve for starting or lighting when the
engine is not running or for lighting and ignition when the car
is being run at such low speed that the generator is not supplying
current. Storage batteries used in starting systems must be of
special design in order to stand the high discharge and to perform
efficiently under the severe vibration and operating conditions in-
cidental to automobile service. The storage battery may be in-

S66 Starting, lAghting and Ignition Systems

Tig. 146. — FrlAcipal Components of Qiay & D&vls Two Unit Starting
and Iiigbtlng System.

Starting System Parts 267

stalled on the running board of the automobile, under the body,
or under the front or rear seat, the location depending upon the
design of the car and the degree of accessibility desired. The
best practice is to set the storage battery in a substantial catrying
case held by rigid braces attached to the frame side and cross
members. If the battery should be set under the tonneau floor
boards, a door must be provided in these to give ready access to
the battery.

The starting motor, which takes the place of the common hand
crank, is operated by current from the storage battery, and the
high speed armature rotation is reduced to the proper cranking
speed by reduction gears of the different forms to be described in
proper sequence. The construction of the starting motor is prac-
tically the same as that of the dynamo, and it operates on the same
principle, except that one instrument is a reversal of the other.

In order to secure automatic operation of a lighting and start-
ing system several mechanical and electrical controls are needed,
these including the circuit breaker, the governor, which may be
either mechanical or electrical, and the operating switches. The
circuit breaker is a device to retain current in the storage battery
under such copditions that the battery current is stronger than that
delivered from the generator. If no circuit breaker was provided
the storage battery could discharge back through the generator
winding. The circuit breaker is sometimes called a ** cutout.'*
The circuit breaker is usually operated by an electro magnet, and
may be located either on the generator itself or any other con-
venient place on the car, though in many cases the circuit breakers
are usually mounted on the back of the dashboard. This device
is absolutely automatic in action and requires but little attention.

The governors are intended to prevent an excessive output of
current from the generator when the engine runs at extremely
high speed. Two types are used: one mechanical, operated by
centrifugal force as at Fig. 146, and the other electrical as depicted
at Pig. 148. The former is usually a friction drive mechanism
mounted in the generator shaft which automatically limits the
speed of the dynamo armature to a definite predetermined number
of revolutions per minute. The maximum current output is thus

268 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

held to the required amount independently of the speed at which
the car is being driven. The use of this device minimizes the
possibility of overheating the generator or overcharging the battery

ARMATIJRF

•XREWOmVER

DRIVIN6 MEMBE/r

eOYERflOft WEIGHT

Fig. 146. — Sectional View of latest Pattern, Gray & Davis GovMned
DTiiamo, Sbovlug Construction of Qovemor and Method of Ad-
justing.

at high car speeds. The electrical system of governing does not
affect the speed of the armature, hut controls the output of the
generator by means of armature reaction, a reversed series field
vrinding or weakening the magnetic field in some way when the
engine speed is excessive. The governors usually permit a maxi-

Starting System Parts 269

mum generator output of from ten to twelve amperes, though the
normal eharging current is less than this figure.

The Westinghouse generators for example, with inherent regu-
lation have a compound field winding. The battery charging cur-
rent passes through the series winding in such direction that any
increase in the battery charging current tends to reduce the voltage
generated, so that the battery is never charged at an excessive
rate. When the lights are burning, however, current flows through
this series, winding in the reverse direction, increasing the output

Fig. 147. — The North East One Unit Motor-Oeneiator. View at Bight
ShowB Oommntator Oovei Bemoved to Expose Brushes.

of the generator and causing it to assist the battery in carrying the
load. With the usual lamp equipment, this increase in generator
output is sufficient to operate the lamps without any demand on
the battery at ordinary running speeds. At low speeds the bat-
tery supplies a certain proportion of the lighting current, and
when the engine is not running, the battery supplies the entire
demand. This type of generator is shown at the left of Fig. 149
and at the bottom of Fig. 150.

The generators with automatic potential regulators maintain
constant voltage regardless of whether the battery is connected
to the system or not. The characteristics are such that the battery-
charging current tapers off as the battery charge increases, being

270 Starting^ Lighting and Ignition Systems

TOSwrroH

TO BATTBRT

lENERATOR
WINDING

RBSISTANOE

LIMITING
RSLA7

MASTER
RELAY

RESISTANCE

Ig. 148. — ^Internal Wiring of the North East Motor Generator.

Starting System Parts 271

-very large when the hattery is ia a discharged condition and of
low value when the battery is fully charged. The voltage is in-
dependent of the speed and the amount of lighting load. The
regulator consists of a vibrating armature that intermittently
short-circuits a high resistance in series with the shunt field wind-
ing of the generator, the length of the short-circuit period depend-
ing on the load on the generator, A nlachine working on this
principle is shown at the top of Fig, 150 partially dismantled and

Fig. 149. — Two Types cf the Westiaghouse Curwot Generators.

at the right of Pig. 149 as it appears when viewed from the com-
mutator end.

In practically all systems an amperemeter (Fig. 145) is
mounted on the dash so that it can be readily inspected by the
driver, this indicating at all times the amount of current being pro-
duced by the dynamo or drawn from the battery. If the indicat-
ing needle of the amperemeter points to the left of the zero point
on the scale, it means that the battery is furnishing current to the
lights or other current consuming units or discharging, "When
the needle points to the other side of the scale, it means that the

272 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

Fig. 150. — Westingbouse Current Qenerators Dismantled to Sbow Interior
Oonstniction.

generator is delivering current to the battery which is charging it,
the amount of chaise or discharge at any time can be read from
the scale on the face of the amperemeter. Some of these instru-
ments have the words "charge" and "discharge" under the scale
in order to enable the operator to read the instrument correctly.
Another important element is the lighting switch, which is

Starting System Parts 273

usually mounted at some point within convenient- reach of the
car driver. This is often placed on an instrument board on the
back of the cowl in connection with other registering instruments.
As ordinarily constructed, the switches are made up of a number
of units, and the wiring is such that the head, side and tail lamps
may be controlled independently of each other. For simplicity
and convenience of installation, the switch is usually arranged
so that all circuits are wired to parallel connecting members or
''busbars" placed at the rear of the switch. In some cars, as the
latest Overland and the White models, the switch units are placed
on the steering column. As but little current passes through the
lighting switch the contacts are not heavy in constriiction as are
those of the starting switch.

The function of the starting switch is to permit the current to
flow from the storage battery to the starting motor, when it is
necessary to start the car. It is arranged usually so as to be
readily operated by the foot and is nearly always installed at
some convenient position on the toe board of the car. As we
have previously shown, the starting switch is often interlocked
with the starting motor gearing so that the operation of engaging
the gear with the flywheel and of turning on the current to the
starting motor are accomplished simultaneously. The lighting and
motor starting wiring systems are independent of each other, and
may be easily found as that used to convey the high amperage
starting current is of heavy round single conductor cable, while
the lighting wiring is usually a light multiple strand cable. In
order to prevent chafing and depreciation of the insulation the
wiring is often protected by conduits of a 'flexible metal tubing,
and the terminals are extremely heavy and well adapted to resist
the vibration which is unavoidable in automobiles.

In a paper read by Benj. F. Bailey, of Michigan State Uni-
versity, before the Detroit section of the A. I. E. E., some inter-
esting deductions are presented showing the influence of voltage
desired on the electrical equipment, also reasons why the Edison
storage battery, which is so well adapted for lighting or ignition
is not equally suitable for starting purposes.

On account of the somewhat fragile nature of the filament of

274 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

floif/^ec^ ft£iDiir/N£>/m

Smrrtm A/^jirtan nrt<///cnsG*K.

ff^i/s/f fy£io r/ec£

Starting System Parts 275

an electric lamp it is not advisable to attempt to operate small
lamps at a high voltage, since a high voltage lamp requires a long,
slender filament. Practice in this country has practically stand-
ardized the six-volt lamp, and there seems to be no valid reason
for making a change. This being the case the total voltage of the
battery is always some multiple of six, usually 6, 12, 18 and 24
volts.

As far as the battery is concerned the smaller the number of
cells the better. A certain minimum of stored energy is necessary
and this can be provided with less weight and at a lower cost in
a few large cells than in a greater number of small ones. The
smallest possible cell using a certain size of plate would have three
plates, one positive and two negatives. A cell of double thi?
capacity would require only five plates, two positives and three
negatives. The weight of the container would be only slightly
greater, and the whole cell would weigh decidedly less than twice
as much as the small one. Thus it happens that a battery capable
of supplying a certain amount of energy at 12 volts will weigh
approximately 35 per cent, more than a battery of the same
capacity at 6 volts. The cost of the 12-volt battery wiU also be
about 35 per cent. more. The labor of caring for the battery and
the chance of trouble due to a broken battery jar are about doubled.

Good starting motors may be built for any voltage from 6
to 24. Comparing a 6-volt motor with a 12-volt, the commutator
of the former would have to be much larger than that of the lat-
ter. This means not only added cost of construction but the loss
in the larger commutator is approximately twice as much as in
the smaller. As this loss is large in any event the efiiciency of the
6-volt motor is perhaps 1 or 2 per cent, lower than that of the
12-volt. The designer of the 6-volt motor is also seriously ham-
pered in his choice of windings, and frequently cannot get just the
combination needed to give the exact characteristics desired. For
example, the calculation might show that 1^4 turns per coil were
desirable. He would be forced to use either 1 or 2. With the
same characteristics the proper number for the 12-volt machine
would be 3, and we should have a good chance to vary the char-
acteristics by using 2 or 4 turns. In spite of these facts the 6

276 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

volt motor' can be, and is, made to have very good characteristics.

As regards the generator, there is very little to choose. The
efficiency, cost, etc., of the two would be practically identical.

The wiring would be somewhat simpler and the switches simpler
and cheaper on* the 6- volt system since with 12 volts it is cus-
tomary to connect the lamps on the three-wire system. A slight
Advantage of the 12-volt three-wire system is that a single ground
would not extinguish all the lights but only those on one side.

Single Wire vs. Two Wire Wiring. — Assuming that a six-volt
system is used there arises the question of whether one or two
wires should be used ; that is, whether or not it is allowable to use
the frame as the 'return wire. The writer has always used the
single-wire system and believes it to be the better, all things con-
sidered. It certainly is the simpler and with the same expendi-
ture as the two-wire system can be made fully as safe against
breakdown. Practically all our larga buildings are wired on the
three-wire plan, the neutral being grounded to the steel frame of
the building. There then exists everywhere a pressure of about
110 volts between the conductors and the conduits containing
them. If this can be done it should be a simple matter to insulate
for six volts. In the writer's opinion the wiring is a very im-
portant part of the installation and it is one that is often
neglected.

Type of Battery. — Having decided upon the voltage to use
the next point is the selection of a suitable battery. The ques-
tion is often raised why the Edison nickel-iron cell is not used
for electric starting. If it were a matter of lighting only, the
Edison cell, in spite of its high first cost, would unquestionably
find many users. The cell is capable of standing almost auy
amount of abuse ; it can be short-circuited with impunity and can
be left in a discharged condition for an indefinite period. Its
efficiency is low, but that would not be a very serious matter to
the average user. Four cells would be necessary in place of three,
but the net weight for a given voltage and ampere hour capacity
would perhaps be 10 or 15 per cent, less than that of a lead
battery.

If, however, we attempt to use the Edison battery for starting

Starting System Principles 277

purposes we are confronted with the difficulty that it is impossible
to operate it at high power outputs. This is on account of the
high internal resistance. A 50-ampere-hour lead battery of three
cells will weigh about 45 pounds, compared to about 37 pounds
for a four-cell Edison battery of the same capacity. It is not an
uncommon practice to take as much as 135 amperes from a lead
battery of this size with a terminal voltage of 5.2. The output is
then 5.2x135=702 watts, or 0.94 horsepower. The internal re-
sistance of the Edison battery is such that it would be entirely
out of the question to provide a battery which would yield this
same power with the same -voltage dropj i.e., at the same effi-
ciency. If we decide to allow a much greater drop we might use
the Edison A-6 cell. This has an internal resistance of about
-0.0024 ohm per cell. If we should take 194 amperes from four
of these cells in series the drop due to internal resistance would
be about 1.9 volts, giving a terminal voltage of about 3.62 volts.
The power would be the same as beforCj^ or 702 watts. The weight
of the four Edison cells would be 80 pounds, or nearly double
that of the lead cells. The watt hour efficiency would be quite
low.

An even more serious difficulty is the fact that the starting
torque of the motor with the Edison cells would be far less than
that with the lead cells. Thus the resistance of the motor used
with the above cells would be about 0.0085 ohm. The internal
resistance of the cells would be 0.0096 ohm and the current in
case the motor did not start at once would be about 310 amperes.
The internal resistance of the lead cells would be only about
0.006 ohm and the starting current would be 415 amperes. Since
the starting torque increases even faster than in proportion to
the current it will be seen that the starting torque with the lead
cells would be about 35 per cent, greater than with the Edison
battery. Thus the '^leeway" or the ''factor of safety*' is con-
siderably less with the Edison battery and the lead plate type is
generally employed in starting systems.

Comparison of Two Unit and Single Unit Outfits. — Since
most of the outfits in use to-day fall within one or the other of
these two classes a somewhat detailed comparison of their char*

278 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

r-aUTCH

FLYWHEEL

STARTING MOTOR

WORM GEAR

DRJVE

INTERMEDIATE
GEARING

^GENERATOR
DRIVING SHAfT

MOTOB

GEnSRATOB

D-u

^©

Fig. 152. — ^View at A Shows Hartford Starting Motor. At B — Clutch and

Driving Arrangement of a Two Unit Outfit.

acteristics may be of interest. The operation of the single unit
machine may be reduced to the pushing of a foot button, although
as practically applied some such outfits require also the meshing
^f a gear. On the other hand, some two-unit outfits do not re-

Starting System Principles 279

quire a gear to be meshed, and consequently fall also in the
*'push the button" class. About all we can say is that the ten-
dency is to design the single-unit machine so that no gears have
to be meshed, while the two-unit outfit usually utilizes the fly-
wheel in connection with the shifting pinion. This may seem like
a very small point to most of us, but is not necessarily so to a
large class who now drive automobiles and who know nothing and
care less about the mechanism by which certain results are accom-
plished. All they want is the result and this attitude is perfectly
justified.

To compare accurately weights, efiiciency, etc., of two. systems
is rather difiicult in general. The writer is, however, fortunate
in having had the chance to design an outfit of each kind, and it
is therefore possible for him to give fairly accurate figures. The
general design constants as regards flux densities, commutation,
etc., are almost identical and consequently the figures are com-
parable. The single-unit outfit is of the type in which two com-
mutators and two windings are used, one being utilized in start-
ing, while both are connected in series for lighting. The gearing is
of the planetary type, and no gears are in relative motion when
the machine is operating as a generator. The change from a ration
of 157 to 1 to two to one drive as a generator is made automatically
by means of a clutch and centrifugal weights. The outside dimen-
sions are 7 x 4 x 13 J4 inches. These include all devices needed to
connect and disconnect the outfit. The total weight with switches,
etc., is 53 pounds.

The two-unit outfit comprises a generator 5^x5^x7^4 inches,
weighing complete with disconnecting switch 17 pounds and a
motor 5^ x 5^ x 10^4 inches, weighing with clutch and switch 30
pounds. The end of the motor shaft carries a pinion which meshes
directly with gear teeth cut in the flywheel face. There is, there-
fore, only a single reduction between the motor and the engine.

The capacities of the two machines when acting as generators
are nearly the same, that of the single-unit system being some-
what greater. The capacities of the two motors at their maximum
horsepower is nearly the same, being 1.43 for the single-unit set
and 1.37 for the separate motor.

280 Starting J Lighting and Ignition Systems

We must next consider the e&ciency of the reduction gearing
in the two cases. The writer was very much surprised When he
first measured the efficiency of a double reduction gearing to find
an efficiency of only about 65 per cent. This was true both of
planetary gearing and of that of the type used in sliding gear
transmissions as usually applied to automobiles. In this latter
case the countershaft was mounted on ball bearings. On the
other hand, the efficiency of the single reduction is high and has
been taken here as 90 per cent.

Considering the motors alone, the efficiency of the single-unit
set as a motor is lower than that of the motor alone of the two-
unit set. This is on account of the greater amount of material
subject to losses, the friction of the idle commutator and to the
fact that the design is somewhat of a compromise between what is
desirable for the generator and for the motor. The relative fig-
ures are 76 per cent, and 74 per cent. Considering also the gear-
ing efficiency, the net efficiency from the motor terminals to the
engine shaft is in the one case 68 per cent, and in the other only
45 per cent., most of the loss in the latter case being due to the
gears. This is a rather serious matter since the cranking speeds
with a given current output would be in the same ratio as the
efficiencies. Thus, the single-unit set turned the engine over at
a speed of 100 r. p. m., the two-unit outfit with the same current
would give a speed of 151 r. p. m. To sum up the matter, the
writer is convinced that the use of double or triple reduction
gearing leads to a great loss in efficiency, perhaps a far greater
one than is usually supposed.

It should also be noted that the motor in the above outfit
might have been designed for higher speed and double reduction
gearing. The motor would have been somewhat lighter and per-
haps 1 or 2 per cent, more efficient. If we consider the total
weight, including gears, it is questionable whether there would
have been any reduction in weight, and certainly the efficiency
would have been far lower. There is another way in which the
use of single reduction gearing and a high efficiency motor act
to reduce the weight of the installation, namely, they permit the
use of a lighter battery. If the single reduction outfit is geared

Starting Systems Compared 281

to give the same speed with less current, the advantage is obvious.
If, on the other hand, it is geared to take the same current and
give a higher speed, it is likewise obvious that the number of
turns required to start will certainly not be more and probably
will be far less. Therefore, the time required to start will be in-
versely proportional to the speed or less, and the drain on the
battery in ampere-hours will be reduced in the same proportion.
It is hoped that the above will make clear that the matter of
efficiency is not a minor question, but is vital to the success of
the whole matter of electric lighting and starting. We shall have
occasion to discuss the same question in connection with lighting
generators.

To sum up the question of single versus two-unit sets, the writer
(Prof. Bailey) from his experience, would rate them as follows:

Operation, — The single-unit set as ordinarily arranged has a
slight advantage.

Weight. — For the same cranking speed and the same generator
output the two-unit outfit is probably about 20 per cent, lighter.
This might not hold for low speed cranking.

. Efficiency, — The writer is convinced that both as a generator
and as a motor the single-unit outfit is at a disadvantage. The
efficiency as a generator will average perhaps 5 per cent, lower
and as a motor about 2 or 3 per cent, lower. If, as is ordinarily
the case, the single-unit set is operated with a double or triple
reduction gearing, the efficiency of the gearing will be between
60 and 75 per cent. If the two-unit set is used it is practicable
to use a single reduction and obtain the higher efficiency of 90
per cent.

Generators and Starting Motors. — Essentially there is not
much difference in construction between a starting motoi; and a
generator as the principles upon which they operate are prac-
tically the same. A machine that is capable of delivering current
in one direction when driven by mechanical power will produce
mechanical energy if electrical current is passed through the wind-
ing in a reverse direction. The construction of typical starting
motors and generators may be readily understood if one refers
to the illustrations at Fig. 151. That at A is one form of th

282 Starting^ Lighting and Ignition Systems

Gray & Davis governed dynamo, which is of the limited armature
speed type. The power is directed to the driving member of a
friction clutch which turns the generator armature by means of
friction contact with a disc attached to but slidably mounted on
the armature shaft. This plate is held in contact by a coil spring.
A pair of hinged governor arms are attached to the driven clutch
plate, while the other ends are attached to a rotating spider mem-
ber fastened on the dynamo armature shaft. When the speed in-
creases beyond a given point the governor weights fly out, due to
centrifugal force, and reduce the amount of frictional adhesion
•^between the clutch members in proportion as the armature shaft
speed augments, until the point is reached where there is no
frictional contact between the parts of the clutch and the driving
plate is turning at engine speed, while the driven member that
imparts motion to the armature is gradually slowing down and
permitting the tension of the coil spring to overcome that force
produced by rapid rotation,, and to bring the discs in contact again
for just a suflScient length of time to enable the armature to
maintain its rated speed even ii^he engine is running faster than
normal.

A typical starting motor, which is of the Bushmore design,
is shown at B. As will be evident, this is practically the same in
construction as the generator shown above it, as far as essentials
are concerned, except that no gpvenior is provided and the arma-
ture shaft is fitted with a small spur pinion designed to engage
with the spur gear on the engine flywheel. No mechanical inter-
connection is necessary between the drive pinion and the elec-
trical starting switch. As soon as the current flows through the
armature of the motor it will move that member laterally and
automatically engage the pinion of the flywheel gear. As soon
as a starting switch is released, a coil spring will push the start-
ing motor armature back again in the position shown in the illus-
tration, and thus automatically bring the pinion out of mesh with
the flywheel gear. In order to obtain a sliding feature this motor
armature shaft is mounted on plain bearings instead of ball bear-
ings, which are standard equipment on practically all machines of
this nature.

Generators and Starting Motors 283

The device outlined at Fig. 151, C, shows the construction fol-
lowed when the ignition function is combined with a current gen-
erator and starting device having the three functions performed
hy one Instrument. The general construction is the same as in
the device previously outlined. The drive shaft of the device is
adapted'to he attached to the engine by direct mechanical means

Fig. 153. — ^Diagram Sbowlng Oonstmctlon of XJ. S. L. Flywbeel Type
Dynamo Motor.

When the device is used as a current generator, the armature is
driven by the shaft, whereas if the device is used as a motor the
armature drives the shaft A through a planetary reduction gearing
and roller clutch. Regardless of whether the device is used as a
motor or generator, the distributor for ignition purposes is driven
in the same direction, and at the proper speed to insure ignition
as it is driven directly from shaft A, which turns at crankshaft
speed.

An example of a double deck combined instrument in which tha

284 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

generator is carried in the lower portion of the casing and the
starting motor at the upper part is clearly shown at Pig. 152, B.
The partial section makes clear the arrangement of the reduction
gearing and roller clutch. This type has met with favor because it is
mounted easily, and also on account of the simple mechanical con-
nection to the engine. While the two units are electrically sepa-
rate, i.e., each having its own field and armature, it may be con-
sidered as one unit mechanically. The double deck instrument
shown is designed for application to the side of a gasoline engine
connecting by chain or gearing to the pump or magneto drive
shaft. It should be noted that this chain or gear is the only con-
nection between the machine and the engine, and that it is used
not only for transmitting the engine energy to the generator, but
also acts to transmit the power from the starting motor to turn
the engine crankshaft when it is desired to start the power plant.
It will b« apparent that in a combined instrument of this type
that it is necessary to have a fairly low gear ratio between the
motor and the engine in order to reduce the high speed of the
motor armature rotation to a speed low enough to turn over
the engine crankshaft. \

At the other hand, once the power plant is s6^rted the gener-
ator .armature must turn at a slower speed than thkt of a starting
motor, and if it is run from the pump shaft or magneto drive shaft
it will turn fast enough to generate the proper quantity of elec-
tricity. The starting motor, however, must be geared down in
order that it may exert the starting torque through the high lever-
age furnished by the reduction gear. The motor occupies the
upper position, and carries a pinion P keyed to the end of its arma-
ture shaft. This pinion transmits the drive to an intermediate
shaft S, which in turn drives the large gear forming the outer cas-
ing of an overrunning roller clutch R. The inner or driven member
of this clutch is mounted rigidly on the armature shaft of the
generator and carries the drive through to an outer chain gear
when cranking the engine. As soon as the engine explodes and the
speed runs above that represented by the starting motor at the
roller clutch the latter comes automatically out of action, thus per-
mitting the generator to obtain its power in the normal way through

Starting System Principles

285

■Ammeter

.Touring: Switch

Starting Switch

the chain wheel attached to the dynamo shaft. The motor
armature above comes to rest as soon as the starting switch is re-
leased. The generator of this device has its output controlled by
a combination of armature reactions and a bucking coil, while the
battery is protected
from discharging back
through tte generator
by a simple magnetic
contact breaker or cut-
out. The starting mo-
tor shown at Fig. 152,
A, is a one-function in-
strument having worm
reduction gearing.

The motor generator
unit used in the United
States Lighting system
differs from any other
form, in that the de-
vice is incorporated in
the flywheel housing
and is driven directly
from the motor crank-
shaft without the inter-
position of any driving
gearing or chain. This
construction is shown
at Fig. 153, which
shows a side view of
the generator installed
in the flywheel com-

«/

Storage Battery

Fig. 154. — ^Diagram Showing Simple Wiring
of U. S. L. One Unit Starting and Light-
ing System.

partment and a face view showing the relation of the fixed and
rotating members. A series of fixed pole pieces is attached to a ring
bolted to the flywheel case while the rotating pole carrier is driven
from the clutch housing and takes the place of the engine flywheel
When current is passed through the fixed field the rotating
armature member will be forced to rotate and turn the crank-

286 Staging, Lighting and Ignition Systems

shaft over. Similarly as soon as the engine starts revolving un-
der its own power the device becomes a generator. The wiring is
extremely simple, as is outlined at Fig. 154. This shows only
the wiring of the generating and motor starting functions and does
sot show any lighting or ignition circuit, though these may be taken

Fig.. I&S. — One Type of Westtughouse Startliig Motor and Parts Onn-
prlslng the AsBemlily.

from the battery in the usual manner. The lighting system oper-
ates on six volt current, though the starter requires a 12 cell or
24 volt battery. The lighting current is taken from only three
cells of the battery.

The Westinghouse motora, generators, and motor-generators
are designed particularly for their location alongside the engine,
-ider the hood. As they are entirely enclosed, they are not

Starting System Principles 28T

affected by dirt, oil, gasoline or water. The end frames that carry
the hearings are machined magnalium castings of substantial de-
sign, and are each fastened to the frame by heavy screws with
lock washers, effectively preventing vibration from disturbing the
alignment of the bearings. The size and proportions of the ma-
chines are such that they can be conveniently located without
interfering with the balance of the car equipment. The frame is

Fig. Ise.^Westlnghanse Starting Motor wltli Self-GontEiiiied Flauetaiy
e;peed Seduction Oeaiing.

of cast steel (except the smaller motors), which not only gives
ample strength, but because of its high magnetic permeability
results in a saving in weight.

The armature is of the laminated drum type, with windings
laid in slots. A special insulation is used, which after treatment
makes the armature a solid mass that does not soften even at a

288 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

Continuous temperature of 250 degrees Fahrenheit. It will stand
even higher temperature for short periods. The insulation and
treatment absolutely prevents the winding from working loose un-
der vibration, and makes it impervious to oil, water, and gasoline.
The design provides for easy removal of the armature.

The field coil winding is also treated with the same insulating
composition and cannot possibly jar loose. Wherever possible,
aluminum wire is used to reduce the weight. The insulation is
applied by a special process that saves space.

The commutator and brushes are of proper proportions and
of sufficient size to last for years without renewal of either. The
brushes are mounted firmly, and can be removed and replaced
without the use of tools. The current is carried to the brush by
a low-resistancce copper shunt, and not by the brush spring.
Proper silver-tipped connections are made by the brushholders
when the brushes are inserted.

The shaft has a large diameter. The motor shaft has either
square or taper end, as desired. A Woodruff' key is provided, and
a large locknut and washer, held by a spring cotter.

The bearings of the generators are magneto type ball bearings
of a high grade, requiring minimum space. Starting motors are
provided with either ball bearings or plain sleeve Jbearings. A
starting motor receives such a small amount of ^ctual running
that ball bearings are a refinement not actually required.

The Westinghouse generators are shown at Figs. 149 and 150.
The simple form of motor fihown at Fig. 155 is intended for use
with external reduction gearing. That depicted at Fig. 156 has
internal planetary gearing to give the required speed reduction
between motor armature shaft and engine crankshaft.

Oenerator Driving Methods. — When electric lighting was first
applied to automobiles it was not considered necessary to drive the
generators by positive connection, and the early devices were fur-
nished with pulleys for flat or V belt drive. At the present time it
is considered highly important to provide a positive mechanical
connection that will not slip between the generator and the engine
crankshaft. The common systems where the generator is a sepa-
rate unit from the starting motor and in those forms where the

Generator Driving Methods

n
ll

290 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

starting and generating functions are combined, involve a connec-
tion with the motor crankshaft through some form of gearing. As
shown in Fig. 144, the generator is driven by means of a leather
universal joint connection with an extension of the pump shaft.
The motor crankshaft imparts its power through the camshaft tim-
ing gear to the small pinion utilized in driving the water pump.
In the generator application shown at Fig. 157 a belt is used, and
at Fig. 158 the armature is rotated by silent chain connection with
a gear on the motor crankshaft. There is not the diversity of
drives for the generator as there is in the methods of connecting
the starting motor to the end of the crankshaft.

In describing the advantages of silent chain drive the Dyneto
Company writes as follows : ' ' The exact type of drive selected must,
of course, depend upon conditions. If possible, use a silent chain
drive, direct to the crankshaft, with a suitable casing so that the
chain can run in oil with aU dirt excluded. In our opinion this
will give the most quiet, durable and efficient drive obtainable.
"We recommend, when space allows, the use of chains of %" pitch
X %" width. When sprockets of small diameter miist be used,
chains of %" pitch x 1" width will be satisfactory. Sprockets of
less than 15 teeth should never be used; 17 teeth would be much
better. The efficiency of a good chain drive, well installed, is from
94 to 96%. If a gear drive is used, the gears must be of the best
material and large enough to stand up under the enormous strains
of starting. It is usually impossible to design a suitable gear drive
of single reduction, and where three or four gears are used the
drive is apt to be noisy, and certainly will be very inefficient. ' In
tests of drives, using four gears in the train, spiral cut teeth, we
have found an efficiency of less than 65%. A useless waste of
35% makes it necessary to use a larger starts, a larger battery,
larger wires, and in fact the whole outfit must be much larger than
otherwise would be necessary."

Starting Gtearing and Clutches. — In order to show the variety
of driving means used in connecting the starting motor to do the
work of turning over the engine crankshaft, the leading systems
have been grouped in one illustration at the top of Fig. 159. .Start-
ing from the front o^ ^^' ' be first method shown is by means

Starting Motor Gearing 291

of a worm gear initial or primary reduction and chain connecticai
from the worm-driven shaft to the motor crankshaft. In some cars
the worm reduction is used having the starting motor momited at
the side of the change speed gear box instead of attached to ths
motor crankshaft. The reduction in speed m^ be hy means of the

ng. IBS.— Front Tlew of King ElgM OTlIuder Powec Plant SbowlBg
Silent duln Drive to Generator,

292 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

spur geare and chain, as shown at A-2, or by a chain to a shaft con-
nected with the timing gear, as in A-3. The method at A-4 is a very
popular one, including a reduction to an intermediate shaft, which
carries a sliding pinion designed to engage the gear on the flywheel
riuu The -method at A-5 is used with the Rrushmore starts, the

Fig. 159. — Diagram Sbowing Uetliods of Transmltttog Fowsi of Starting
lOotOT to Oaeoline Englao at A. Slmpllfled Diagram at B Depicts
Means of IntercoBnectlng Starting Switcli and Uotoi Starting Oear.

pinion being brought iilto direct engagement with the gear on the
flywheel by the axial movement of the armature when the current
is! supplied to the field winding. The method at A-6 pennits of
attaching the starting motor securely to the frame side member at
a j)qmt-9ep.tbe,geaj: box, where it will be out of the way and not
in^rfefe wrEh the accessibility of the power plant. When mounted

Starting Motor Gearing

294 Starting y Lighting and Ignition Systems

in this maimer the drive is by a double universally jointed shaft to
a small silent chain sprocket, which connects to a much larger
member attached to the engine flywheel or crankshaft.

The complete system shown at Fig. 159, B, is the next most
popular of all tiiat have been used. This shows the application of
the starting motor, outlined at A-4. The mechanical interlock be-
tween the sliding pinion on the intermediate shaft and the starting
switch is clearly shown. Before the pinion engages the gear oi;i the
flywheel rim the switch makes contact, but owing to the resistance
interposed in circuit the motor will turn slowly to permit of more
ready engagement of the sliding pinion. As soon as the pinion is
fully engaged with the large gear the resistance is cut out and the
motor draws what current it needs from the storage battery, this
being enough to produce the torque necessary to turn over the en-
gine flywheel and the crankshaft to which it is attached at such
q[)eed as will produce prompt starting. A system of this nature
used on the Hupmobile in connection with the Bijur starter is
shown at Fig. 160. In this the piaion is shifted by a spring con-
nection as outlined at A instead of a direct rigid coupling. This
makes it easier to engage the pinion as the switch can make contact
as at D and the spring wiU draw the pinion in mesh. The spring
is also useful under the conditions shown at B where the pinion
engages readily but the switch has not yet made contact.

The actual application of the system, shown at A-1, Fig. 159, is
outlined at C, Fig. 161. It will be observed that the starting mo-
tor is attached to the side of the engine in a vertical position and
that it drives the intermediate shaft by means of a worm on the
motor armature, which engages with a worm gear on the interme-
diate shaft, which also carries the driving sprocket, as shown at B.
A further reduction in speed is obtained owing to the difference
in size of the small sprocket on the intermediate shaft and that at-
tached to the clutching member normally revolving free on the mo-
tor crankshaft. It will be seen that the motor armature is sup-
ported on ball bearings, and that one of these, backing the worm,
is a double row form capable of sustaining both the end thrust
and radial load imposed by the driving worm. In order to resist
the end thrust on the worm gearing successfully a ball thrust bear-

Starting Motor Gearing

Cl
/It

'A/tat6

Fig. 161. — Dlagiam Showing Appllcsition of Worm Beductfon Oear to
Turn Over Engine Crankshaft Through Supplementary Chain sf\^
Sprocket Reduction.

296 Starting, lAghting and Ignition Systems

ing is used, as shown at B. When it is desired to start the motor
the dutch actuator, which is shown in the diagram at A, is pushed
in until it engages the ratchet teeth cut on the face of the lai^
sprocket. When the sprocket turns it must turn the engine crank-
shaft in the same direction, but just as soon as the engine runs
faster than the large sprocket the clutching action will be released
automatically by the ratchet teeth being thrown out of engage-

Fig. 162. — Diagram Sliowlng Oonstrnction of Typical OTemmnliig Olntch.

ment. If it is necessary to start the engine by means of a hand
crank this may be done by inserting the starting crank in the start-
ing ratchet provided on the extreme end of the crankshaft. The
large sprocket is normally free and the engine crankshaft turns
without producing a corresponding movement of the sprocket mem-
ber. The general arrangement of the parts is so dearly shown
that no further description will be necessary.

The construction of a typical overrunning dutch is clearly
shown at Fig. 162. The electric starting motor is secured to a
base on the crankcase of the gasoline engine and the motor power

Starting Motor Gearing

29T

is imparted through the medium of the smaU gear P carried by the
armature shaft. This drives gear E, which turns at a lower speed
on account of being larger, and that in turn* engages with gear D,
which is still larger in diameter. The small pinion C, which turns
much slower than the motor pinion F, meshes with the large gear
B attached to the clutch body. The use of this gearing provides a

Fig. 163. — Showing Interconnection Between Starting Switch and Inter-
mediate Pinion of 1914 Delco-Cole System.

reduction of 40 to 1, which means that gear F must make 40 revo-
lutions to one of the clutch body.

The ratchet or driven member of the overrunning clutch L is
pinned to the engine crankshaft and revolves with it when the mo-
tor is operating, rotating inside of the gear B, having a bearing at
K and turning in the direction of the arrow. The member L has
three flat surfaces, M, cut at an angle to the inside of the gear B.
On each of these a hardened steel roller. A, is held inside of the
gear by a light spring and against the flat surface of the member

298 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

Switches and Current Controlling Devices 299

L. The roller travels with the clutch and runs free against the
side of the gear B when the engine is in motion and when the start-
ing gears are idle. As soon as the current is directed to the elec-
tric starting motor, the three rollers are bound between the clutch
body and the ratchet member carrying them and the crankshaft is
driven until such time as the engine speed increases sufficiently to
overrun that of the member attached to the crankshaft.

Overrunning clutches are not always used in those systems in
which the gears are moved into engagement, as in that shown at
Fig. 163, the clutch is omitted. It is used in the design shown at
Fig. 164 however. In this former, the starting switch and the
double shifting member, GH, are mechanically interconnected so
that the starting switch will not be completely engaged until gear-
ing is in mesh. The larger gear H of the sliding members meshes
with that on the armature shaft, while the smaller of the pair, G,
meshes with the flywheel. The arrangement of the parts outlined
is used on the Cole car. In the Hartford starting motor, which is
shown at Fig. 152, A, the clutch is of the friction type and is en-
gaged automatically when the energy is passed through the motor
winding to produce movement of the engine crankshaft. The re-
duction between the starting motor and the crankshaft is made by
a worm and worm gear. When the switch pedal is depressed and
the switch blades go into contact the same movement produces
pressure on the. end of the lever attached to R R, which transmits
a strong pull on the friction clutch aad thus connects the motor to
the starting gear. The Ward Leonard combination is shown at
Fig. 152, B. In this the motor is carried above the generator, and
but one driving gear is needed to operate both the generator and
to enable the starting motor to turn over the engine crankshaft.
The speed reduction is by an intermediate gear shaft, the general
operation being the same as that of the starter previously described.

Switches and Current Controlling Devices. — The various
methods of operating the starting switch, which may be intercon-
nected with the gearing to turn the crankshaft, are shown at Fig.
165. All of the methods of actuating the electric self-starter may
be grouped into three main classes: one, by hand lever; two, by
pedals, and three, by semi-automatic means. The method at A is

SOO Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

used on some Paige-Detroit cars, a hand lever, A, attached to the
steering column being used to make the mechanical interconnection
between the clutch pedal and the starting gear mechanism. In or-
der to safeguard t^e gearing of the starter the electrical connection

Fig. 166. — ^Mettiods of Actuating Motor Starting SCedumism.

cannot be eEEected until this mechanical interconnection is made.

After the hand lever is thrown over in the proper position, de-
pressing the clutch pedal sufSces to permit the electrical connection
to be made and the gasoline engine started. In the Hupmobile
control, which is shown at B, a small auxiliary lever S is used to

Starting Switch Construction

301

put tho starter into gear. The view at D shows a small pedal
which is employed to make the starting connection. This is the most
popular ^stem, especially when the pedal is connected with the cur-
rent-controlling switch, so that the full amount of current will not
flow to the motor until the reduction gearing is completely engaged.
An example of the semi-automatic method which is used on the
cars employing the Entz starter, namely, the Franklin, Chalmers

Fig. 166. — OoiiBtnictlon of Typical Startliig Swltclies.

and White, ia shown at C. To put the starter in operation it is
only necessary to move the handle H on the dashboard or other,
convenient position, where it may be readily reached with the
hand or foot. This method is called the semi-automatic, because
the starter operates all the time until the gasoline engine is stopped
by short circuiting the ignition. ' The first step is to throw the ha"

802 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

die to the igDition point, and after closing the ignition switch, it is
moved in the same direction until the storage battery has been con-
nected to the starter generator. It is not necessary to touch the
handle again until one desires to stop the engine, as moving the
handle to the other extreme of its operating quadrant first opens
the connection between the storage battery and the motor generator
and then interrupts the ignition. With this startittg system, if tho

Tig. 167. — side View of King Eight Cylinder Power Plant Showing
Location of Current Oenerator and Ignition Distriliutor.

motor should be stalled for any reason or slow down below its nor-
mal cranking speed the starting motor-generator unit automati-
cally changes from a generator to a motor and turns the gasoline
engine crankshaft, making it practically impossible to stall the
engine with this type of starter.

Owing to the large amount of current starting switches most

~v, they are made much heavier in construction than lighting

hes. They must be mechanically strong and the contact areas

Fig, i68.— Wirini ..packard Starting System at B.

x
s

m
m.
ca

en
en

Sow UniU are Installed

IIS

III

» jt -

I si

£ a s

lis

304 Starting, Ughting and Ignition Systems

be snfficientlj large to pass a current of from 40 to 200 amperes^
depending upon the voltage of the starting ^stem and the size of
the engine to be turned over. If the contact points were not of
lai^ area they wonld be very soon burnt. There are two types of
starting switches in common use, one has only a single contact and
is used on those systems in which the motor is connected at once
directly to the battery terminal. The other type of switch has two
sets of contacts, the first one completing a circuit through a re-
sistance, the second one cutting out this resistance and i)ermitting
the maximum current to flow. The Oray & Davis laminated switch,
shown at Fig. 166, A, is a two-contact form. A movement of the
switch actuator first engages the blades with the contacts E E, then
the arched contact piece L makes a connection with the pieces C C
to allow the maximum current to pass. With the switch shown at
D, which is also of Gray & Davis manufacture, there are no start-
ing gears, and the only necessary operation is to direct the current
directly from the battery into the starting motor winding. The
switch is set in the floor boards of the car and is operated by the
push rod P, which terminates with a button. The contacts C and
O are circular in form and their free ends are turned away from
each other so they may slip down over the members R and S, which
are set in the insulating piece B. As soon as the pressure of the
foot is released a spring returns the push button P and the electric
circuit is broken.

The switch used on some of the Deleo systems is shown at C.
In the latest form the motor generator has two independent wind-
ings, both on the field and the armature. If the current from the
battery is directed into the generator end the machine acts as a
shunt motor and the armature rotates at a moderate speed. If the
starting gearing will not mesh immediately when brought together
a starting button on the dashboard enables the operator to pass the
current through the generator winding, this causing the armature
to turn over and facilitating meshing of the gearing. The main
starting switch has only two points. In the off position the starter
is connected directly to the battery terminal. An auxiliary contact
on the starting switch breaks the circuit through the generator end
and stops the current flowing when the device is used as a starting

Electrical Switches 305

motor. A heavy copper bar is moved across the face of the con-
tacts B, E and F, the switch normally connects B and F, a feature
which is necessary because of the dual functions of the combined
motor generator. When the copper bar is moved to the left con-
tacts B and F are brought into full electrical connection with one
another and the entire battery current then flows to the motor. The
contact pieces are molded into a piece of insulating material. The
contact bar is pressed against them by means of springs.

Another form of laminated spring switch, which is known as the
harpoon type, is shown at B. This is of Ward Leonard design. It
is designed for use with a starter, having flywheel gear drive, there-
fore it provides two contact points. The first contact with resist-
ance in circuit is secured when the fingers C contact or make con-
nection with the plugs E and F. Further movement of the switch
fihort circuits the resistance by closing the main laminated con-
tacts M M. These allow for considerable latitude of movement.
The entire switch is built up on a piece of slate as a base and the
resistance coils of wire are placed in the back of this base piece.
The switches shown may be considered representative design,
though the construction varies with practically every starting sys-
tem. The writer is indebted to the Horseless Age for the illustra-
tions at Figs. 165 and 166.

806 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATIONS.

(Courtesy of HoneleBt Age.)

KBT: D. I7.=DOUBLB UNIT; S. U.=SINGLB UNIT; G. B.=OBOUNDED RETURN;

I. R. = INSULATED RETURN.

Make of
Car

Make of
System

Type

Make of
Battery

No.

Cells

Capa-
city
Amp
Hrs.

Volti^pe

on
Lamps
Starter

Head-
Ught
C.P.

Type of
Dimmer

Wir-
ing
Sys-
tem

YEAR 1912

Cadillac

Cole

Delco

W. Leonard. . . .

S.U.

Exide

WiUard....
WUlard . . .
Willard...
Willard...
WiUard...
Waiard...
WiUard...

Vesta

WiUard...
WUlard...
WUlard...
WUlard...

Vesta

Exide

. 12
8
3
9
6
8
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
8
9
9

80
60

100
35

100
80

120
80
60
80
60

120
60
60
35
60

6.5

7.6

6-7

• •

6
6
6
6

• •

21
21

16
21
15
21

• •

15
24
15
24

12
16
40
21
15
21
21

Redst.

I.R.
I.R.

Empire

Franklin. .

Haynes

*""£ .... X ... .

Remy

Entz

Leece-Nev

W.Leonard

Rushmore

Splitdorf

D.U.

S.U.

D.U.

G.R.
LR.
I.R.
I.R.

ininA, ........

I.R.

Lenox

G.R.

Marmon

Aplco

I.R.

Paterson

Peerless

Simplex

Spaulding

Steams

Auto-Lite

Gray & Davis. .

Rushmore

Deaco

Vesta

D.U.
D.U.
D.U.
S.U.

I.R.
LR.
G.R.
LR.
I R.

White

S.U.
S.U.

LR.
I.R.

YEAR 1913

Allen

AppersOn. . . .

CadUlae

Case

Chadwick ....
Chevrolet ....

Cole

Cunningham..

Dorris

Empire

Fiat

Franklin

GUde

Haynes

Hudson

Imperial

Interstate.. . .

Jeffery

Jackson

King

Kissel

KUne

Lenox

Auto-Lite

D.U.

Gray & Davis. .

D.U.

Delco.

S.U.

Westinghouse .

S.U.

Westmghouse .

S.U.

Westanghouse .

D.U.

Gray & Davis. .

Delco

S.U.

Northeast

S.U.

Westinghouse .

D.U.

Remy

S.U.

Westinghouse .

D.U.

Entz

S.U.

Westinghouse .

D.U.

Leece-Nev,

D.U.

Delco

S.U.

Northeast

Aplco

S.U.

U.S.L

S.U.

Auto-Lite

D.U.

W.Leonard

D.U.

EsterL&KiBsel .

D.U.

Rushmore

D.U.

Gray & Davis. .

D.U.

Willard

Exide

WUlard

WiUard....

WUlard

Exide

Willard....

WiUard....

WUlard

WiUard

WUlard

WiUard

Exide

WUlard

Apple, Mich.

U.S.L

WUlard

Exide

WUlard

WiUard

120
80

100
80
50
80
50

120
35
80

100

• • •

120
100
100
100

80
110
120

8.5 16

7 6

6
6
6
6
6
6

• •

14
6
7
6
6

12
6

18
6

7.2 24
8 ..
6 30
6.7 24
6 6
7.5 6
6 12
6 6
6 6

Resist.

D.Bulb

• •

18,20

Series],

I.R.

LR,

LR.

G.R,

G.R.

I.R.

G.R.

LR.

G.R.

G.R,

I.R.

G.R,

I.R.

LR.

I.R.

LR.

LR,

LR.

Electrical Equipment Specifications

Make of
Car

Make of
System

Type

Make of
Battery

No.

CeUs

Capa-
city
Amp.
Hrs.

Voltage

on
Lamps
Starter

Head-
light
C.P.

Typeo
Dimme

Lexington

Jesco

S.U.

Willard . . . .

120

Little Six

Deaco

S.U.

Willard

100

• i

Locomobile. . . .

Adlake

D.U.

WiUard

120

6-7

5.8

McFarlan

Vesta

Willard

3
3

60
100

7
6

• •

15
24

Mercer

Rushmore

D.U.

MitcheU

Esterline

D.U.

Gould

120

Moline

W.Leonard....

D.U.

Willard

100

D.BuU

Moyer

U< S. L

S.U.

U.S.L

Series

Marmon

Northeast

S.U.

WUlard

National

Gray & Davis. .

D.U.

Willard

100

Oakland (35) . .

Deaco

D.U.

Exide

■ • •

Oakland, 42, 60

Delco

S.U.

Exide

• ■ •

Olds

Delco

U.S,L

S.U.

Exide

U.S.L

12
12

160
80

6-7
6

24
24

20
16

Overland.

Packard 2-48. .

Bijur

Exide

Willard

3
3

80
100

• •

24
24

Packard 1-38 . .

Delco

S.U.

Paige-Detroit..

Gray & Davis. .

D.U.

Willard

Paterson

Auto-Lite

D.U.

WiUard

Pathfinder ....

Gray & Davis. .

D.U.

WiUard

Peerless

Gray & Davis. .

D.U.

WiUard

120

6-7

Pierce-Arrow . .

Westinghouse .

D.U.

Exide

• • ■

• •

Resist.

Pilot

Gray & Davis. .
Gray & Davis..
Delco

D.U.
D.U.
S.U.
D.U.

WUlard

Wniard

Exide

Willard

3
3
3
3

80
100

• • •

120

6.5

6-7

6
6
6
6

15
15
16
40

Resist.

Reo

Republic

Simplex

D. Bull

Rushmore

Spaulding

Gray & Davis. .

D.U.

WiUard

100

Steams

Gray & Davis. .

D.U.

WiUard

Studebaker

Wagner

S.U.

WUlard

Stutz

Esterline

Gray & Davis. .
Jesco

S.U.
D.U.
S.U.

WUlard

WiUard

3
3

80
80
35

6
6
8

21
15
21

Velie

Westcott

Series. .

White

S.U.

Exide

White

S.U.

WiUard

YEAR 1914

AUen

Auto-Lite

Bijur.

D.U.
D.U.

WUlard

WiUard

3
3

100
80

6
6

15
18

Apperson

Glide

Series

Westinghouse .
Remy

D.U.
S.U.

WUlard

3
3

80
120

6
6

16
15

Series

Auburn

D. Bull

Briscoe

Aplco

S.U.

WUlard

• •

D. Bull

Buick

Delco

S.U.

Exide

• •

CadUlac

Delco

S.U.

Exide

130

Case

Westinghouse. .
Westinghouse. .
Westinghouse. .
Westinghouse. .

S.U.
S.U.
S.U.
D.U.

WUlard

Willird....

WiUard

WUlard

3
3
3
3

80
100
120
100

6
6
6
6

16
16
16
20

Case

Chadwick

D.Bull

Chalmers

Entz

S.U.

U.S.L

D.Bull

Chalmers

Entz

S.U.

U. S. L

D. Bull

Chandler

Westinghouse. .

S.U.

WiUard

D.Bull

Chevrolet

Gray & Davis. .

S.U.

WUlard

100

808 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

Make of
Car

Ohevrolet

Cole :...

Dorris

Empire

Piat

Franklin

<xrant

Hajmes

Hudson

Hupp

Imperial

Jeffery-4

Jeffery-6

King

Kiflsel

JOine

Lenox

Xiexington

Locomobila. . . .

Xiozier

X.P.C

Lyon»-Atl

McFarlan

M armon

Mason

Maxwell

Meroer

Metz

MitcheU

Moline

National

Oakland

Olds.

Packard 3-48 . .
Packard 2-38. .
Packard 4-48. .

Paige

Paterson

Pathfinder-4. . .
Pathfinder-6...

Peerless

Pierce-Arrow . .

Pflot

Reo

Republic

Simplex

Spaulding

i- teams

"xker

Make of
System

Auto-lite

Ddeo

Westinghouae.

Remy

Westinghouae.

EntK

Allis-Chalmers
Leece-Nev. . .

Deloo

Westinghouse.
Kortheast. . . .
U* S. Xj ..... .

U. iS. MJ

W. Leonard...
EsterL & Kissel

Rushmore

Gray & Davis. .

Gray & Davis. .
Gray & Davis. .

Remy

Northeast

Deaco

Northeast

Jesco

Gray & Davis. .

Rushmore

Northeast

Remy

Wagner

Deaco

Ddco

Delco

Bijur

Gray & Davis. .

Delco

Gray & Davis. .

Deaco

Gray & Davis. .
Westinghouse. .
Gray & Davis. .
Natl. & Remy .

Delco

Rushmoce

Entz

Gray& Davis..

Wagner

Remy

Gray & Davis. .

Type

S.U.

D.U.

S.U.

D.U.

S.U.

D.U.

S.U

D.U.

S.U.

D.U.

D.U

D.U.

S.U.

D.U.

S.U.

D.U.

S.U.

D.U.

S.U.

D.U

D.U.

S.U

D.U.

S.U.

D.U.

D.U

S.U.

D.U.

S.U.

D.U.

S.U.

D.U.

Make of
Battery

WOlard.
Exide. . .
Willard.
WOlard.
^inilard.

Wright. . .
Willard. .
Exide. . . .
Willard. .
^Itlllard..
U.S.L...
U. S. L. . .
WiUard..
Exide....
^miard. .
Willard..
Willard. .
Willard..
Willard. .
Willard. .
WiUard..

Vesta

Willard..
Willard..
Willard..
WiUard..
WiUard..
WUlard..
WUlard. .
WUlard..

Exide

Exixe

WUlard. .
WUlard . .
WUlard..
WUlard. .

Exide

WUlard. .
WiUard..
WUlard..

Exide

WiUard . .
WUlard..

Exide

WUlard. .
WUlard..
"^Uard . .
WUlard..
WUlard..
Willard . .

No.

'^of

Cells

3
3
3
6
3
9
3
6
3
3
8
6

12
3
6
3
3
3
3
3
3

12
3
8
3
3
3

6
6
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
9
3
3
3
3

Capa-
city
Amp,
Hrs.

120

'60

120

100

120

100

110

120

100

120

100

120

100

• • •

120
60
80

■ • •

160

100

120

100

« • ■

120

100

120

Voltage

<m
TjBxapB
Starter

7
14

6
21

7.2

6-7

7.5

6-7

7
10

• •

6
6
6

7
7
7
6
6
6

6-7
6
6

6.5
6

6-7
18
6
7
7
6

6
12

6
18

6
12

• •

12
24

6
12

5.8

6
24

16
6
€
6

• •

6-7 6
7 7

7
7
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
18
6
6
7
6

Head
Ught
C5.

Type of
Dimmer

Wip-
ing
Sys-
tem

15
21
15
15
15
21
12

• •

15
15
20
18
18
15
21
24
15
16
21
18
15
24
15
24
15
12
24

12
15
15
12-181
20
24
29
29
15
12
15
15
16
21
15
15
16
40
15
15
15
21
15

Resist.
D.Bulb

D.Bulb

Resist.

Series
D.Bulb
Resist.
D.Bulb

• ••••• ■

Resist.

D.Bulb

• ••••••

Resist.
Resist.
Series
D.Bulb

D.Bulb

LR.

G.R.

LR.

G.R.

LR.

G.R.

LR.

G.R.

LR.

G.R.

LR.

G.R.

LR.

G.R.

LR.

G.R.

LR.

G.R.

LR.

G.R.

LR.

G.R.

LR.

G.R.

LR.

G.R.

Electrical Equipment Specifications

309

Make of
Car

Make of
System

Type

Make of
Battery

No.

Cells

Capa-
city
Amp.
Hrs.

Voltage

on
Lamps
Starter

Head-

Type of
Dimmer

Will-
ing
Sys-
tem

Weateott

White

Overland

Winton

Jesco

White

Gray & Davis. .
Gray & Davis. .

S.U.
S.U.
S.U.
D.U.

T^^Uard

Willard

3
9
9
3
3

80
35
69
80
80

7 6
7 21
7 21
6 6
6 . ..

15
21
21

16
15

D.Bulb

G.R.

I.R.

G.R.

YEAR 1915

Allen Westinghouse. .

Bijur...
Delco. .
Remy. .
Aplco. .
Delco...
Delco...
Westinghouse. .
Westinghouse. .

£ntz

Gray & Davis. .
Gray & Davis. .
Gray & Davis. .
Auto-Lite

Apperson. . .
Auburn 6 . . .
Auburn 4 . . .

Briscoe

Buick

Cadillac

Case

Chadwick . . .
Chalmers. . .
Chalmers 82.
Chandler. . . .
Chevrolet C .
Chevrolet 6. .

Chevrolet H. . . Auto-Lite.

Cole

Cimningham..
Detroiter . . . .

Dodge

Dorris

Empire

Fiat...

Franklin

GUde

Grant

Hajmes ,

Hudson

Hupmobile . .

Interstate

Jeffery ,

Jackson

Keams

King

Kissel

Kline

Lenox

Lexington. . .
Locomobile. .

Lozier

UP.C

Ijyons-Atl. . .
McFarlan.. .
Madison ....

Delco

Westinghouse. .

Dyneto

Northeast

Westinghouse. .

Remy

Rushmore

Djmeto

Westinghouse. .
All|s-Chalmers.

Leeoe-Nev

Delco

Westinghouse. .

Remy

Bijur

Auto-Lite

Allis-Chalmers.
W. Leonard . . .
West. & Kissel.
Westinghouse. .
Westinghouse. .
Westinghouse. .
Westinghouse. .
Gray & Davis. .

Remy

Northeast

Westinghouse. .
Remy *.

D.U.

S.U.

D.U.

S.U.

D.U.

S.U.

D.U.

S.U.

D.U;

S.U.

D.U.

S.U

D.U.

S.U.

D.U.

S.U.

D.U.

S.U.

D.U.

S.U.

D.U

D.U.

WiUard

Exide

100

Willard

WiUard

Exide

130

WiUard

100

U. S. L

WUlard

Waiard

WnUrd

100

WOlard

WUlard

Exide

120

WUlard

120

G.L.B

WUlard

WiUard

100

WiUard

U.S.L

120

WiUard

Wright. > . . .

WUlard

100

Exide

• • •

WiUard

WUlard....

WUlard

100

Willard

100

MUler

• •

• • •

WUlard

WiUard....

100

WUlard

120

Exide

100

Willard

100

WiUard

120

WUlard....

WUlard

100

WUlard

WiUard

120

WUlard

6
14

6
21

7
12
14

7
14

6
14

7.2
14

6.4

7.5

6-7

Resist.

Series

• •

D.Bulb

16-21

D.Bulb

Series

D.Bulb

D Bulb

Resist.

D.Bulb

D. Bulb

D.Bulb

Series

• •

Series

7.2

Resist.

12-18

Series

D.Bulb

10
15

D.Bulb

18-21

Series

18-

D.Bulb

Resist.

5.8

18-21

Series

D. Bulb

Resist.

D. Bulb

G.R.

I.R.

G.R.

LR.

G.R.

I.R.

G.R.

LR.

G.R.

LR.

G.R.

LR.

G.R.

G.R

G.R.

LR.

G.R.

LR.

G.R.

G.R.
I.R.
G.R.
G.P

810 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

Make o!
Car

Make of
System

Type

Make of
Bat4-<ery

No.

Cells

Capa-
city
Amp.
Hrs.

Voltage

on
Lamps
Starter

Head-
light
C.P.

Type of
Dinuner

Wir-
ing
Sys-
tem

liiarion

Westinghouse. .

S.U.

WiUard

120

G.R.

Marmon

Bosch

D.U.

Willard

G.R.

Mason

Westinghouse. .

D.U.

Willard

I.R.

Maxwell

Simms-Huff . . .

S.U.

Presto . ; . . .

Resist.

G.R.

Mercer

U. S. L

S.U.

U.S.L

100

D. Bulb

G.R.

Metz. . . .♦

Gray & Davis. .
Aplco

D.U.
S.U.

Willard

3
6

60
120

6
12

Series

I.R.

MitcheU

I.R.

Moline

Auto-Lite

D.U.

Willard

100

D.Bulb

G.R.

National

Westinghouse. .

D.U.

Willard

100

D.Bulb

I.R.

Oakland

Delco

S.U.
S.U.
D.U.

Exide

U.S.L.WiU

3
3
3

• a •

120
80

6-7

7
6
6

18-20
16

Series
Resist.

G.R.

Olds

Delco

Auto-Lite

G.R.

Overland

G.R.

Packard

Bijur

D.U.
D.U.

Willard

3
3

120
90

7
, 7

7
6

24
15

D.Bulb

LR.

Paige

Gray & Davis. .

G.R.

Paterson

Delco

S.U.

Exide

120

' 6

Resist.

G.R.

Pathfinder ....

Westinghouse. .

D.U.

Willard

120

D.Bulb

G.R.

Peerless

Gray & Davis. .

D.U.

Willard

80,120

.6-7

G.R.

Pierce-Arrow . .

Westinghouse. .

D.U.

Exide

113

6-7

Resist.

G.R.

Pilot

Westinghouse. ,
Dyneto

D.U.
S.U.

WiUard

3
6

100
35

6
12

15
21

Resist.
Series

G.R.

Regal

G.R.

Rushmore

Natl. & Remy .
Delco

D.U.
D.U.
S.U.

Willard

Exide

3
3
3

80
100

• as

6.5

6
6
6

21
15
15

Series
Series
D.Bulb

G.R.

Reo

I.R.

Republic

LR.

Simplex-Crane.

Rushmore

D.U.

WiUard....

120

G.R.

Spaulding

Entz

S.U.

WUlard

D.Bulb

LR.

Steams

Gray & Davis. .

D.U.

WUlard

D.Bulb

G.R.

Studebaker.. . .

Wagner

D.U.

WUlard....

100

Series

LR.

Stutz

Remy

Gray & Davis. .
Delco

S.U.

D.U.

S.U.

Willard

WUlard

Exide

3
3
3

120
80
80

7
6
7

7
6
6

21
15
15

Resist.

I.R.

Velie

G.R.

Westcott

G.R.

White

G.&D., Bijur.

S.U.
D.U,

9
3

85,60
120

21
6

21
15

D.Bulb

I.R.

Winton

WUlard

G.R.

YEAR 1916

AUen

Apperson. .
Aubum-40 .
Aubum-38 .
Briscoe. . . .

Buick

CadiUac. . .

Case

Chadwick . .
Chalmers. .
Chabners32

Westinghouse. ,

Bijur

Delco

Remy

Aplco

Delco

Westinghouse.
Westinghouse.

Entz

Gray & Davis.
Gray & Davis.
Auto-Lite ....

Disco

Westinghouse. .

D.U.

S.U.

D.U.

S.U.

D.U.

S.U.

D.U

D.U.

S.U.

D.U.

Gould

WUlard

WUlard....

WUlard

Exide

80,100

Exide

130

Exide

WUlard

100

U.S.L.....

VUlard

WUlard

WiUard

Detroit

WUlard

100

7.5

6
21

6
12

6
6
6
6
7
6
6
6
6

18
6
6
6

12
6

15
18
15
15
15
16-21
18
18
20
21
15
18
18
15
15

Resist.

Series

D.Bulb

D. Bulb

D.Bulb

Resist.

D.Bulb

Series

D.Bulb

Resist.

G.R.

LR.

G.R.

G-.R.

G.R.

I.R.

G.R.

Electrical Equipment Specifications

311

Make of
Car

Make of

System

Type

Make of
Battery

No.

Cells

Capa-
city
Amp
Hrs.

Voltage

on
Lamps
Starter

Head-j

light

C.P.

of
ler

Wir-
ing
Sys-
tem

Empire

Fiat....;

Franklin

Glide

Grant

Haynes

Hudson

Hupp

Interstate

Jackson

Jeffery

Keams

Kissel

Lenox

Lexington

Locomobile. . . .

Lozier

UP.C

McFarlan

Manon .......

Marmon

Maxwell

Mercer

Metz

MitcheU-6

MitcheU-8

National

Oakland-32

Oakland-38, 60

Olds

Overland

Packard

Paige

Paterson

Pathfinder . . . .

Peerless

Pierce-Arrow . .

PUot

pnot

Regal

Reo

Republic

Simplex-Crane.

Spaulding

Steams

Studebaker.. . .

Stutz

Velie

Westcott.

White

Winton

Auto-Lite

Rtuahinore

Dyneto

Westinghouse. .
Allifl Chalmers,

Leece-Nev

Delco

Bijur

Remy

Auto-Lite

Bijur ,

Disco

West. & Kissel
Westinghouse. ,
Westinghouse. ,
Westinghouse. .
Gray & Davis.

Remy

Westinghouse.
Westinghouse.

Bosch

Simms-Huff. .

U. O. MJ

Gray & Davis.

Aplco

Westinghouse.
Westinghouse.

Remy

ijeico .......

Delco

Auto-Lite ....

Bijur

Gray & Davis.

Delco

Westinghouse.
Gray & Davis.
Westinghouse.
Westinghouse.

Delco

Dyneto

Remy

Delco

Rushmore.. . . ,

Entz ,

Westinghouse. .

Wagner

Remy

Gray & Davis.

White

Bijur ,

D.U.

S.U.

D.U.

S.U.

D.U.

S.U.

D.U

D.U.

S.U.

D.U.

S.U.

D.U.

S.U.

D.U.

S.U.

D.U.

S.U.

D.U.

D.U

D.U.

S.U.

D.U.

S.U.

D.U.

S,U.

D.U.

S.U.

D.U.

S.U.

D.U.

Waiard...
U.S.L....
WiUard...

Presto

Wright

WiUard...

Exide

Willard...
Willard...
Willard. ..
U. S. L. . . .
Pumpelly..
Willard...

Exide

Willard...
Willard...
Willard . . .
Willard . . .

Gould

Willard . . .
Willard. . .
Presto. . . .
U. S. L. . . .
Willard . . .
Waiard...
Willard...
Willard. . .
Willard . . .

Exide

Willard. . .
\^llard . . .
Willard . . .
Willard. . .
Willard . . .
Willard...

Exide

Willard...

Willard . . .

Gould,U.S.L

Willard.

Exide...

Gould. . .

Willard.,

WiUard.,

Wfllard. ,

Exide . . .

waiard.

8
8
6
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
3
6
3
8
8
3
3
6
3
3
6
6
6
3
6
3
3
8
8
3
3
3
3
3
3
8
8
3
3
6
8
3
3
9
6
8
8
8
3
9
3

120

100

108

100

120

100

120

100

120

80,120

120

135

100

85,50

100

• • •

120
60
80

100

120
80

100
35,60

120

7
6
14
6
6
6

6
6
12
6
6
6

7.2 7.2

7-8 6

6 6

6 6
7.6 6

12 12

7 6

6
6

6-7 5.8

6 6
12-14 12

7 6

6
12
7
12
6
7
7
6
7
7

6-7 6
6 6

7
7
6
6

7
6
6
6

6-7 6
6-7 6
6 6

15
15
21
16
15

• •

15
15
16

is;.

18
10
18
15
16
21
18-21
15
21
55
25
12
18
16
15
15
15
12
12
18
16
24
15
16
16
15
21
16
15
21
17
16
40
16
18
16
21
16
16
21
16

D.Bulb

Series

Resist.

Series

D.Bulb

Series

D.Bulb

Series

D.Bulb

Resist.
D.Bulb

Series

D.Bulb

Series

Resist.

Series

• •••••••

D.Bulb
D.Bulb
D.Bulb

Resist.

Series

D.Bulb

D. Bulb

D.Bulb

Resist.

D.Bulb

• ••*••••

D.Bulb
D.Bulb

G.R.

LR.

G.R

G.R.

G.R,

G.R.

G,R,

G.R.
G.R.
G.R.
G.R.

G.R.

G.R,

G.R.

I.R.

LR.

G.R.

LR.

G.R.

LR.

G.R.

G.R

G.R.

I.R.

G.R.

LR.

G.R.

LR.

G.R.

LR.

G-^

CHAPTER V

TYPICAL STARTING AND LIGHTING SYSTEMS

Delco— Dyneto-Entz — ^Auto-Lite — Gray & Davis — ^North East — ^Bijur — Simms-
Huff — Genemotor — One Unit Ford System — Bosch-Rushmore — ^Remy —
Westinghouse.

Delco Systems. — The various components of the Deleo ignition
system have been outlined in the preceding chapter on ignition.
A wiring diagram of the 1914 Delco-Olds system is shown at the
top of Fig. 168 for those with a sufiBcient knowledge of electricity
to be able to trace the various wires. All of the units are shown
in diagram form, but the operation of the system may be easily
understood if this is studied in connection with the diagram at
Fig. 169. The ignition system will draw its current either from
a five-cell dry battery or from the storage battery. The function
of the ignition relay has been previously described. It will be ob-
served that this system operates on the one wire method, all con-
nections for return of current to the storage battery and the various
units being made by the motor car frame. The broken lines indi-
cate a ground connection, while the full lines designate wires.
Considering the starting connections first, it will be apparent that
one of the terminals of the storage battery is grounded to the frame,
whereas the other is joined to one of the terminals of the starting
switch. The other terminal of the starting switch is joined to the
windings of the motor generator, which makes that device act as
a motor to turn the engine crankshaft. The return from the mo-
tor windings to the storage battery is by means of a grounded re-
turn wire. With the switch in the position shown, the starting
windings are not connected with the storage battery, but the gen-
erator windings are. One of the generator terminals is joined di-

312

Delco System Features

31S

o
>

I
I'

eft

6
1-1

814 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

rectly to the frame. The other passes through the cutout relay
and through the voltage regulator, both of which have been pre-
viously described. Six of the terminals on the distributor head,
which are for ignition, are joined to the spark plugs. The remain-
ing terminal, which is in the center of the group, is joined to the
secondary terminal of the ignition coil. The circuit through the
secondary is completed through a grounding wire, which is in elec-
trical contact with the grounded bodies of the spark plugs. The
insulated terminals of the spark plugs are joined to the six terminals
on the distributor head. The primary winding of the ignition coil
is joined to the circuit breaker through one terminal, this in turn
passing through the dry battery to the ignition relay. The other
terminal of the ignition coil is joined to the starting, lighting and
ignition switch by a suitable conductor.

The arrangement of this switch is such that the current may be
supplied directly to the head, side and tail lamps from the storage
battery at all times that the switch circuit is closed. It is also pos-
sible to draw the ignition current either from the six-volt storage
battery or from the battery of dry cells. The only time that the
storage battery current flows through the starting motor windings
is when the starting switch closes the circuit between the storage
battery and the motor. At all other times the starting switch mem-
ber is in such a position that the generator windings are in action
and that the current from the armature is being passed into the
storage battery.

Delco Motor Generator. — The motor generator which is located
on the right side of the engine as at Fig, 170 is the principal part
of the Delco System. This consists essentially of a dynamo with
two field windings, and two windings on the armature with two
commutators and corresponding sets of brushes, in order that
the ignition apparatus incorporated in the forward end of the
machine may work both as a starting motor, and as a generator for
charging the battery and supplying the lights, horn and ignition.
The ignition apparatus is incorporated in the forward end of the
motor generator. This in no way affects the working of the gen-
erator, it being mounted in this manner simply as a convenient

1 accessible mounting.

Delco System Features , 81fl

Ths motor generator has three distinct functions to perform
which are as follows: No. 1 — Motoring the Generator. No. 2 —
Cranking the Engine. No. 3 — Generating Electrical Enei^.

Motoring the Qenerator. — Motoring the generator is sccom-
plished when the ignition button on the switch is pulled out. Thia
allows current to come from the storage battery through the am-
meter on the combination switch, causing it to show a. discharge.

Fig. 170. — Appllcatiou of Delco Motor Qenerator to 1916 Hndson Engine.

The first reading of the meter will be much more than the reading
after the armature is turning freely. The current discharging
through the ammeter during this operation is the current required
to slowly revolve the armature and what is used for the ignition.
The ignition current flows only when the contacts are closed, it being
an intermittent current. The maximum ignition current is obtained
when the circuit is first closed and the resistance unit on the rear
end of the coil is cold. The current at this time is approximately

316 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systema

6 amperes, but soon decreases to approximately 3}^ amperes. Then
as the engine is mnning it further decreases until at 1,000 revolu-
tions of the engine it is approximately 1 ampere.

This motoring of the generator is necessary in order that the
starting gears may be brought into me^, and ^oold trouble be
experienced in meshing these gears, do not try to force them, siniply

Fig. 171. — Diagrams Explaining OoustmctlDii of Belco Uotor 0«n»rator
Harlng Tblrd Bnisli Onneut ControL

Delco System Features 817

allow the starting pedal to come back, giving the gears time to
change their relative position.

Generator Clutch. — A clicking sound will be heard during the
motoring of the generator. Thia is caused by tiie overrunning of
tiie clutch in the forward end of tiie generator which is shown in
view 1, Fig. 171.

The purpose of the generator dutch is to allow the armature to
revolve at a higher speed tJian the pump shaft during the cranking
operation and permitting the pump shaft to drive the armature

ng, 172. — TIiA Delco Ovemumlng ClutclL

when the engine is running on its own power, A spiral gear is cut
on the outer face of this clutch for driving the distributor. This
portion of the clutch is connected by an Oldham coupling to the
pump shaft. Therefore, its relation to the pump shaft is always
the same and does not throw the ignition out of time during the
cranking operation. This clutch receives lubrication from the oil
that is contained in the front end of tiie generator which is put in
at B (view 1). This is to receive oil eadi week sufficient to bring
the oil op to the level of the oiler. The arrangement of clutch parts
is shown at Fig. 172.

Orankiiig Operation. — The cranking operation takes place when
the starting pedal is fully depressed. The starting pedal brings t*--

818 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

Delco System Featv/rea 819

motor clutch gears (view 1) into mesh and withdraws the pin P,
(views 1 and 2) allowing the motor brush switch to make contact
on the motor commutator. At the same time the generator switch
breaks contact. This cuts out the generator element during the
cranking operation. As soon as the motor brudi makes contact on
the commutator a heavy current from the storage battery flows
through the series field winding and the motor winding on the
armature. This rotates the armature and performs the cranking
operation. The cranking circuit is shown in the heavy lines on the
circuit diagram (Fig. 173). This cranking operation requires a
heavy current from the storage battery, and if the lights are on
during the cranking operation, the heavy discharge from the bat-
tery causes the voltage of the battery to decrease enough to cause
the lights to grow dim. This is noticed especially when the battery
is nearly discharged ; also will be more apparent with a stiff motor
or with a loose or poor connection in the battery circuit or a nearly
discharged battery. It is on account of this heavy discharge current
that the cranking should not be continued any longer than is neces-
sary, although a fully charged battery will crank the engine for
several minutes.

During the cranking operation the ammeter will show a dis-
charge. This is the current that is used both in the shunt field
winding and the ignition current; the ignition current being an
intermittent current of comparatively low frequency will cause the
ammeter to vibrate during the cranking operation. If the lights
are on the meter will show a heavier discharge. The main cranking
current is not conducted through the ammeter, as this is a very
heavy current and it would be impossible to conduct this heavy cur-
rent through the ammeter and still have an ammetfer that is sensitive
enough to indicate accurately the charging current and the current
for lights and ignition. As soon as the engine fires the starting
pedal should be released immediately, as the overrunning motor
clutch is operating from the time the engine fires until the starting
gears are out of mesh. Since they operate at a very high speed, if
they are held in mesh for any length of time, there is enough friction
in this clutch to cause it to heat and bum out the lubricant There
is no neces&dty for holding the gears in mesh.

820 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

Motor Clutch. — The motor clutch operates between the flywheel
and the armature pinion for the purpose of getting a suitable gear
reduction between the motor generator and the flywheel. It also
prevents the armature from being driven at an excessively high
speed during the short time the gears are meshed after the engine
is running on its own power. This clutch is lubricated by the
grease cup A, shown in view 1, Fig. 171. This forces grease
through the hollow shaft to the inside of the clutch. This cup
should be given a turn or two every week.

Generating Electrical Energy. — When the cranking operation
is finished the motor brush switch is raised off the commutator by
the pin P when the starting pedal is released. This throws the
starting motor out of action. As the motor brush is raised off the
commutator the generator switch makes contact and completes the
charging circuit. The armature is then driven by the extension of
the pump shaft and the charging begins. At speeds above approxi-
mately 7 miles per hour the generator voltage is higher than the
voltage of the storage battery which causes current to flow from
the generator winding through the armature in the proper direc-
tion to. charge the storage battery. As the speed increases up to
approximately 20 miles per hour this charging current increases,
but at the higher speeds the charging current decreases. The
curve, Fig. 173, shows approximately the charging current that
should be received for different speeds of the car. There will be
slight variations from this due to temperature changes and condi-
tions of the battery which will amount to as much as from 2 to 3
amperes.

Lubrication. — ^There are five places to lubricate this Delco Sys-
tem. No. 1 — The grease cup for lubricating the motor clutch (D,
view 1, Fig. 171). No. 2^0iler for lubricating the generator
clutch and forward armature bearing (B). No. 3 — The oil hole
(C) for lubricating the bearings on the rear of the armature shaft.
This is exposed when the rear end cover is removed. This should
receive oil once a week. No. 4 — The oil hole in the distributor, at
A, for lubricating the top bearing of the distributor shaft. This
should receive oil once a week. No. 5 — This is the inside of the
distributor head. This should be lubricated with a small amount

Delco System Features

321

■

■-

•

^
^

•?

•

tor

ylO

■

•

^
.O

•

5» 'K

■^

•

•v

i^i-

■

r>f'

*/y

^on

J9U
> 2

.^0 \s^*

r <3

■

&
n

s
a

o
u

o
o

■^1

^
t*

822 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

of vaseline, carefully applied two or three times during the first
2,000 miles running of the car, after which it will require no atten-
tion. This is to secure a burnished track for the rotor brush on
the distributor head. This grease should be sparingly applied and
the head wiped clean from dust and dirt.

Delco Voltage Regulator. — ^In the 1914 Delco systems a voltage
regulator such as shown at 0, Fig. 39 (Chapter II) is used. The

LINlfi

tahe

lOTLZNDBR

SHUNT

nVLBT

FUlfP

OUTLBT

LINB

Fig. 175. — Simple Water Analogy to Outline Clearly the Operation of tbe
• 1913 and 1914 Belco Voltage Begulator.

function of this device is to prevent too much current flowing to
the storage battery when the engine is running at high speed. As
the voltage of the storage battery will vary with its condition of
charge the intensity of the magnetic pull exerted by the solenoid
A upon the plunger C varies and causes a contact attached to the
plunger to move in and out of mercury which is contained in the
bottom of the mercury tube B. When the battery is in a dis-
charged condition the plunger C assumes a low position in the
mercury tube, and when in this position the coil of resistance wire
carried upon the lower portion is immersed in the mercury, and

Delco Voltage Regulator Action 828

as the plunger rises the coil is withdrawn. As the plunger is with-
drawn from the mercury more resistance is thrown into the cir-
cuit and the greater resistance causes the amount of current flow-
ing to the battery to be gradually reduced as the batteiy nears
the state of complete charge until finally the plunger is almost com-
pletely withdrawn from the mercury, throwing the entire length
of the resistance coil into the shunt field circuit, thus causing an
electrical balance between the battery and the generator and elim-
inating any possibility of over-charging the battery. A description
of the voltage regulator follows : A solenoid coil A surrounds the
upper half of a mercury-containing tube B. A plunger C, com-
prising an iron tube with a coil of resistance wire R wrapped
around the lower portion on top of mica insulation, is adapted to
be drawn up into the solenoid as the battery current increases in
strength. One end of this resistance coil is attached to the lower
end of the tube, the other end being connected to a rod B in the
center of the plunger. The lower portion of the mercury tube is
divided into two concentric wells by an insulating member, the
plunger tube being partly immersed in the outer well and the rod
in the inner well. The space in the mercury tube above the mer-
cury is filled with a special oil, which serves to lubricate the
plunger as well as protect the mercury from oxidation. The de-
vice is connected to the shunt field of the generator so that the
current must follow a path leading into the outer well of mer-
cury through the resistance coil R to the rods carried at the center
of the plunger, from thence into the center well of mercury and
out of the regulator. The more the resistance coil R is pulled out
of the mercury the more resistance is interposed in the field circuit
and a smaller amount of the generator current is going to charge
the storage battery.

The illustration at Fig. 175 makes the operation of the 1914
Delco voltage regulator easily understood and here again we use
the water analogy. When the water tank is empty little resistance
is offered to the flow of water into it. This means that but small
pressure is necessary to overcome the resistance and to force the
water into the tank. The regulating valve will remain wide open
and allow a large quantity of water to be pumped. As the amount

824 Starting, lAghting and Ignition Systems

AS> — ►

dff0fYlt¥J,

^H9n TM0»

♦
-►

e_t

dilil»

^mm

— ^

4*%

llh-^

Delco Protective Circuit Breaker 825

of water in the tank increases the pressure in the pipe line also
becomes greater, and this increased pressure acting through the
pressure cylinder flows into the valve and thereby decreases the
flow of water. When the tank is about full of water the valve is
so nearly closed that only a small amount of water is pumped.
ConsideriQg the action from an electrical point of view, when the
storage battery is discharged it offers but little resistance to the
flow of the charging current. It does not require much voltage
to produce a current, flow in a circuit of low resistance so the
current regulating plunger will remain low in its tube, this al-
lowing a large quantity of current to be generated. As the storage
battery becomes charged the pressure on the line increases and
this acting through the voltage regulating coil lifts the plunger
out of the mercury and reduces the flow of current. When the
storage battery is fully charged the regulating plunger is nearly
all out of the mercury and only a small amount of electricity is
supplied to the battery.

It will be noticed that in the wiring diagram shown at Fig.
176 a protective circuit breaker is attached to the switchboard.
The function of this device is to open the circuit between the
source of current supply (generator and storage battery) and the
current consuming units (lamps, horn and ignition apparatus)
if one of the wires leading to a current consuming unit happens
to become grounded. Under such a condition an excessive flow
of current is possible on account of the lessened resistance of the
circuit. Such a flow goes through the winding of the circuit
breaking relay or protected circuit breaker, which produces a
magnetic pull that opens the contact and cuts off the current
supply. As soon as the contact is opened the magnetic pull
ceases and the contact is closed again, re-establishing the magnetic
pull and again opening the contact. The circuit breaker will
continue to vibrate until the ground or short circuit is located
and corrected whenever any one of the switches controlling the
current consuming units is pushed in to establish a circuit. The
function of this protective circuit breaker is the same as a fuse
block and fuse except that it is not necessary to keep replacing
fuses.

826 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

Method of Ourrent Output Regulation. — The voltage regulator
which has been previously described and which was used on the
1914 Delco Systems has been replaced by a system of ** third brush
excitation'* in the 1916 systems. This has been very concisely de-
scribed by the Delco engineers, and in order to make for accurate
presentation of fact, the following descriptive matter is given in
the same way as it appears in the Delco instruction books.

There is really only one point in regard to the generating of
electrical energy which is difficult to understand, and the best of
scientists are at as much of a loss on this point as the average elec-
trician. This one point can be expressed in the one sentence which
is as follows: ** Whenever the strength of the magnetic field or the
amount of magnetism within a coil is changed an electro-motive
force is induced or generated.'* This is variously expressed, but
can be resolved into the same sentence as originally given. One of
the most common expressions is, ''Whenever an electrical conductor
cuts the magnetic field or cuts magnetic lines of force an electro-
motive force is induced.'* In order to measure this electro-motive
force, it is necessary to make connection from each end of the con-
ductor to a suitable meter, by doing this a coil would be formed.
Therefore, this expression means nothing different from the original
expression. On account of being more readily understood, this
expression will be referred to in connection with the explanation of
the action of the generator.

The amount of the voltage that is induced (or generated) in any
conductor or coil varies directly with the rate of the cutting of the
magnetic lines; e.g., if we have a generator in which the magnetic
field remains constant and the generator produces 7 volts at 400
E. P. M., the voltage at 800 R. P. M. would be 14 volts, and it is on
account of the variable speed of generators for automobile purposes
that they must be equipped with some means of regulation for
holding the voltage very nearly constant. The regulation of this
generator is by what is known as third brush excitation, the theory
of which is as follows :

The motor generator consists essentially of an iron frame and a
field coil with two windings for magnetizing this frame. The arma-
*^ure, which is the revolving element, has wound in slots on its iron

Delco 1916 Regulator System 827

core a motor winding and a generator winding connected to corre-
sponding commutators. Each commutator has a corresponding set
of brushes which are for the purpose of collecting current from,
or delivering current to the armature windings while the armature
is revolving.

"When cranking, current from the storage battery flows through
the motor winding magnetizing the armature core. This acting
upon the magnetism of the frame causes the turning effort. "When
generating the voltage is induced in the generator winding and
when the circuit is completed to the storage battery this causes the
charging current to flow into the battery. The brushes are located
on the commutator in such a position that they collect the current
while it is being generated in one direction. (The current flows one
direction in a given coil while it is passing under one pole piece
and in the other direction when passing under the opposite pole
piece.) "When the ignition button on the combination switch is first
pulled out the current flows from the storage battery through the
generator armature winding, also through the shunt field winding.
This. causes the motoring of the generator. After the engine is
started and is running on its own power this current still has a
tendency to flow in this direction, but is opposed by the voltage
generated. At very low speeds a slight discharge is obtained.
At approximately 7 miles per hour the generated voltage exceeds
that of the battery and charging commences. As the speed increases
above this point the charging rate increases as shown by the curve
(Fig. 174). The regulation of this generator is affected by what
is known as third brush excitation.

Since the magnetic field of the generator is produced by the
current in the shunt field winding it is evident that should the
shunt field current decrease as the speed of the engine increases
the regulation would be affected. • In order to fully understand this
explanation it must be borne in mind that a current of electricity
always has a magnetic effect whether this is desirable or not. Re-
ferring to Fig. 177, the theory of this regulation is as follows!
The full voltage of the generator is obtained from the large brushes
marked ''C and ''D.'^ When the magnetic field from the pole
pieces N and S is not disturbed by any other influence each coil i?

828 Starting^ Lighting and Ignition Systems

UTOTOOOd

Fig. 177. — ^Diagram Showing Delco Third
Brush Excitation Begulating Principles.

generating uniformly as it passes under the pole pieces. The volt-
age from one commutator bar to the next one is practically uni-
form around the com-
mutator. Therefore,
the voltage from brush
C to brush E is about
5 volts when the total
voltage from brush 0
to brush D is 6j4 volts
and 5 volts is applied
to the shunt field wind-
ing. This 5 volts is
suflScient to cause ap-
proximately lyi am-
peres to flow in the
shunt field winding.

As the speed of the
generator is increased
the voltage increases,
causing the current to be charged to the storage battery. This
charging current flows through the armature winding, producing
a magnetic effect in the direction of the arrow B. This magnetic
effect acts upon the main magnetic field which is in the direction
of the arrow A, with the result that the magnetic field is twisted
out of its original position in very much the same manner as two
streams of water coming together are each deflected from their
original directions. This deflection causes the magnetic field to be
strong at the pole tips, marked G and F, and weak at the opposite
pole tips with the result that the coils generate a very low voltage
while passing from the brush C to the brush E (the coils at this
time are under the pole tips having a weak field) and generates a
greater part of their voltage while passing from the brush E to D.
The amount of this variation depends upon the speed that the
generator is driven; with the result that the shunt field current
decreases as the speed increases as shown in the curve.

By this form of regulation it is possible to get a high charging
rate between the speeds of 12 and 25 miles per hour, and it is with

Delco System Features

829

drivers whose average driving speed comes between these limits
that more trouble is experienced in keeping the battery charged.
At the higher speeds the charging current is decreased. The driver
who drives his car at the higher speeds requires less current, as expe-
rience has taught that this type of driver makes fewer stops in
proportion to the amount the car is driven than the slower driver.
The output of these generators can be increased or decreased by

Fig. 178. — The Delco Magnetic Latch.

changing the position of the regulating brush. Each time the posi-
tion of the brush is changed it is necessary to sandpaper the brush
so that it fits the comiputator. Otherwise the charging rate will be
very low due to the poor contact of the brush. This should not be
attempted by any one except competent mechanics, and this charg-
ing current should be carefully checked and in no case should the
maximum current on this generator exceed 22 amperes. Also
careful watch should be kept on any machine on which the charging

880 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

rate has been increased to see that the commutator is not being
overloaded. Considerable variation in the output of different gen-
erators will be obtained from the curve shown, as the output of the
generator is affected by temperature and battery conditions.

Numerous diagrams are presented to show the wiring scheme
followed on representative Delco Systems also photographs show-
ing practical application of the unit to the power plant.

Switch

EHyCeOs

Dash Lamp

To Switch on Wheel

^Vheel — 1

Conduit .

T«l L^-5
III
He«l L^iii-4

Fig. 179. — ^Nbn-Teclinical VTiring Diagrain Showing Parts of the 1016
Delco-Hodson Ignition Starting and Lighting Systems.

Dyneto-Entz One Unit Electric System. — The advantages of
the one unit system are said to be simplicity, light-weight,* low
cost and ease of installation, high cranking speed, higher operative
efficiency, quiet starting and non-stalling in traffic. It is said
by those who favor this system that it is good engineering to sim-
T)lify any instrument or apparatus when it can be done without

Delco-Hudson System

132 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systema

1 t{

1 k I

I
I

J
1

.jii ill H

1916 Delco-Cadillac System.

Fig. 183,^WIrtng Diagram Shovring Parts of the Delco CadlUae Eig>'
Cylinder Type StartlnR LlgUHng and Ignition System.

834 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

sacrificing efficiency or durability. The simplest designs are
cheaper to manufacture and are not so apt to give trouble to the
user!. The single unit system is much simpler than the two-unit
system and it is much easier to install because there is but one
machine to set up, drive and wire up. The simplicity of the one-
unit system means that there is but one set of bearings to oil, but
one pair of brushes (if the device is the single commutator type),
one simple and direct connection by silent chain and simple wiring.
The application of the one unit system to the chassis of a "White
car is shown in the plan view of the chassis at Fig. 184. The
motor-generator is attached to a substantial bracket, back of the
gear box and is connected to the engine by a driving shaft carry-
ing a sprocket at its forward end just ahead of the shaft support-
ing bearing, this being in connection with a large sprocket at-
tached to the engine flywheel, as shown at Fig. 185 by a silent
chain. The storage battery is carried on the other side of the
chassis frame just forward of the rear axle. To start this form
of a one-unit system a switch is moved from the ''off'' position
to the ''start'' position and it is left there until one desires to
stop. In the White system the control switch is mounted on the
steering column, as shown at Fig. 185. The Dyneto single unit
system has no relays, automatic switches, overrunning clutches,
sliding gears or current regulating devices. The usual manner of
installation is to drive the motor generator with a silent chain so
that the device turns at three times the motor speed. As the ten-
dency is towards small bore, high speed motors, it is necessary that
these be cranked over fast as they do not start easily at speeds of
rotation below 100 r. p. m. The Dyneto-Entz starter will crank a
four cylinder 2% inch bore x 4^/4 i^^h stroke at a 172 r. p. m. on a
six volt system drawing 40 amperes. A six cylinder, 3% inch bore
X 5^ inch stroke is cranked over at 140 r. p. m. on a 12 volt
system drawing 35 amperes from the battery. It is said that less
energy in watt hours is required of a storage battery at the high
cranking speed because while the current output may be a little
more, the time that the current is required to flow is much less
in securing a positive start than it would be at the lower cranking
speed.

Dyneto-Entz System

ng. 181.— Flan View of White Touring Car Chassis Showing Locaf
P—'i ff ■P'T'-Ki One Unit Stattlns and liffMi"- "-"'■"n.

336 Starting, Lighting and Igmtion Systems

One of the diatinctive features of the Dyneto System is that it
is non-stalling. This maies driving in traffic perfectly easy with-
out changing gears every time the car is slowed down. This is
because when the engine tends to run slower than a certain num-
ber of revolutions the device ceases to be a generator and becomes
a motor, automatically drawing current from the storage battery
instead of putting current into it. It is contended by those who

Pig. 185.— view at Loft SHOWS Simple Control Switch of Dyneto-Whlte
Starting and Ligbting SyBtem, Beai View of Motor at Bight Shows
Large Starting Sprocket Used on White Engine ^Flywheel.

do not favor the one unit system that the non-stalling feature
makes a serious drain on the battery. It is said that no current
is dravra from the battery at speeds above 8 m. p. h. and that
very little is taken at any lower speed at which the ear can he
driven. When any current is drawn from the battery back through
the motor-generator, the series field is strengthened and as this
oauses an increase of voltage it prevents to a large extent a back
flow of current. The device changes from a motor to a generator
at 5 miles per hour, and at a speed of 2^4 m. p. h. a point that

Dyneto System Features

837

z 5
oc.

°16

-60-l-3(H-.6-|-60a

80-T4a

CO
CD

40 "20- -.4- -400

20- -10- -.2 -200

flOO

20 25 30
M.P.H.

20 40 60 80 100 120 130 160 180 200

35 40 45 S3

Fig. 186. — ^Motor Characteristic Curves of 12-Volt Dyneto Machine.

would never be reached except momentarily in traflSc, a current of
10 amperes is drawn from the battery.

This back flow when it does occur is turned to advantage by
preventing the gasoline engine stalling. It is necessary to take
very fully into account the characteristics of the various motors

'888 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

to which the machine ia to be fitted and proportion the windings
accordingly. It may be desirable on a car having a certain gear
ratio to have the back flow occur at a somewhat higher speed than
on another car. These
factors are taken into
consideration in de-
signing the various
gysteins. A number of
curves are given at
Fig. 186 showing the
motor characteristics
of a 12 volt Dyneto
size B. It will be ob-
served by consulting
the upper diagram that
in this case the device
changes from a motor
to a generator at a
speed of 7j^ m. p. h.
If the speed is in-
creased above this fig-
ure the machine be-
comes a generator and
charges the storage
battery. If the speed
decreases the device
becomes a motor and
draws current from
the storage battery.
Fig. 187.— The Dyneto One Unit Motor-Oen- I* will be observed
erator at A and Latest Metliod of Installing that the Maximum
It on Franklin Engines Sliown at B. current output of 12j^

amperes is produced when the engine is turnii^ over at a
speed equivalent to 17j^ m, p, h. Prom this point the current
output falls 80 that at 47^ m. p. h. but six amperes are being
generated. At 600 r. p. m. the machine delivers .6 h. p. and is
working at 60 per cent, efficiency. Similarly, if used as a generator

ChalmerS'Entz System 889

it is consuming .6 h. p. at 600 r. p. m. At this speed it is capa-
ble of exerting' the torque of 30 lbs. feet, which means a pull of
30 pounds at a distance of one foot from crankshaft center. Those
technically informed wilL have no trouble in following the motor
characteristic curves presented. The reader who is more interested
in the practical application of the system than in the technical
aspects will not be interested in curves of this nature.

Ohalmers-Entz System. — This is used on the Chalmers Model
26 and is shown at Fig. 188. It comprises a motor-generator, bat-
tery, switch and regulating device. The feature, of the installation
is that it prevents the gasoline engine from stalling, even when the
car is in gear. For all normal driving the dash switch is left in the
position at the extreme right, or, in other words, the starting sys-
tem is constantly connected with the motor. For constant driving
at speeds in excess of 30 miles an hour the dash switch should be
moved to the middle position in the slot. In this position the igni-
tion of the motor is still operative, but the generative portion of
the starting system is cut out so that the battery no longer is being
charged. When there is a tendency for the engine to stop the elec-
tric motor automatically picks up and turns the engine over until
proper firing occurs.

When the dash switch is thrown to the **on'' position, current
flows from the battery to the motor-generator, which as a motor re-
volves at about 100 r. p. m. As soon as the engine attains a speed
of approximately 600 r. p. m., 6 to 8 miles per hour, car speed,
the direction of the current, due to the way the switch is connected
to fields and armature is reversed and the electrical machine then
becomes a generator, which in turn charges the storage battery.
In the illustration, showing the wiring of the Entz system, the volt-
ages of the lamps are shown. In the case of the head lights, the
small bulbs incorporated are also shown.

The Auto-Lite System. — The 1915 Overland cars use the Auto-
Lite system, which is shown at Fig. 189, A. This is a six volt, three
unit system, operating on the one wire principle. The ignition
function is performed by an entirely distinct appliance from the
starting and lighting systems, namely, a high tension magneto.
Five wires run from this magneto, four of these running the p^^—^

840 Starting, Ughting and Ignition Systems

Auto-Lite Two Unit System

Tig- 189' — ^DlagFam at A Shows ArraDKemeat of Parte of 1915 OTerland-
Anto-Llta Sj^tem and How Tliey are Wired Together. B — Fart Sec-
tional View of Storage Battery. C — Automatic Olicnlt Breaker.
D — Onireut Generator. E — Starting Motor.

842 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Syateim

plugs, one for inteiTupting the ignition through a fuse box to the
controlling ewiteh. The generator is driven from the motor crank-
shaft by a silent chain. The starting motor, which has the switch
mounted integrally, tiims the engine crankshaft through a gear cut ■
on the flywheel rim. One of the wires of the generator is grounded,
tha remaining wire leading from that device runs through the cir-
cuit breaker and from that member through the fuse box and
switch to the storage battery. Two wires run from the six volt

Fig. 190. — Wiring DlagTam of 1916 Overland-Aiito-Llt« Srstem.

battery, one of these terminating on a switch terminal of the start-
ing motor while the other attaches to one of the motor terminals.
The remaining motor terminal is grounded. The various appli-
ances comprising this system are all clearly shown, and the wiring
may be easily traced from the various units through the fuse box
and switch by careful study of the diagram. In order to simplify
wiring, the wires going to the switch are all colored differently.
This insures that they will be replaced on the proper terminals if
removed.

Auto-Lite-Overland System 84ft

The storage battery used with this system is shown at Fig. 189,
B. It is a special form, in which the three cells are placed end to
end instead of side by side, making a long, narrow battery instead
of the usual construction, which is approximately square. The con-
struction of the circuit breaker is shown at C, the contact points,
which are the only parts needing attention, being clearly outlined.
The generator, which is a very simple device, is shown at B, the '
points requiring lubrication, and the removable plates for inspec-
tion of the brushes are clearly depicted. The starting motor is

Fig. 191. — Starting Motor Ufled in 1916 Anto-Lito-Overlwd SrBt«m villi
Automatic Itnlon SUft at. A. Antomatic Outont Sliovu at B. Metbod
of DriTing G«neTator witli Sileot Oliaia Ontlined at C.

AutO'Lite Two Unit System

84i&

fihown at E, the pinion which engages the gear on the flywheel is
shown mounted on the armature shaft, and the cover, which nor-
mally covers the brush end of the motor, is removed in order to
show the method of reaching the motor brushes when these members
need attention.

STORACe BATTCRY

Fig. 193.— Wiring Diagram of Auto-Lite-Clievrolet Starting, Ughting and

Ignition System.

The diagram Fig. 190 shows the 1916 Overland Auto-Lite sys-
tem. This differs from the 1915 system principally in the use
of an automatic pinion shift, and the units are changed slightly
in detail as outlined at Fig. 191, in consequence. The applica-
tion of the system to the four-cylinder power plant is shown at
Fig. 192, while the method of installing the units on the six-
cylinder Overland engine is depicted at Pig. 193.

Gray & Davis System. — The starting and lighting equipment
used on the Model 79, 1914 Overland, is the Gray & Davis system,
shown at Pig. 195, and comprises three principal units:

846 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

Tig. 19t — ^ViewB Sbowlng ConUoUlng Devices Of 1916 OveiUnd Oar.
Note OoutroUiug Switch on Steering Oolumn and fitartlng Swltcb
Bntton K«xt to Acc«lsia*^nr.

Gray and Davis System 347

a — The generator which produces the current and delivers it to
the lamps and storage battery.

b — The storage battery which accumulates the current thus gen-'
erated and delivers it to the lighting system or the starting motor,
as occasion demands.

c — The starting motor, which receives current from the storage
battery and revolves the engine whenever it is to be set in motion.

Besides these three principal units the system includes the fol-
lowing auxiliary apparatus :

d — An automatic cutout, whose function is to disconnect the
generator from the storage battery when the engine is stopped or
running below the speed at which the generator's voltage is high
enough to charge the battery. The cutout is located on the engine
side of the dash.

e — The starting switch, which is a pedal-button located in the
floor board of the car convenient to the foot of the operator.

f — The ammeter, whose purpose is to show whether the system
is working properly or not. "When the dynamo is running and
sending current to the storage battery the ammeter hand will point
to the right of zero or at '* charge." "When the lights are burning
or the starter motor is running, this hand will point to the left of
zero or at ** discharge,'* thus indicating the rate at which current
is going out of the storage battery.

The speed of the generator is controlled by an automatic clutch
that is so designed that, no matter how fast the engine runs, the
generator will not be driven faster than a certain predetermined
speed which corresponds to that at which the engine runs when
driving the car at 12 miles per hour on. high gear, but, of course, if
the engine drops below this speed the generator will also.' This is
done by means of a centrifugal governor which regulates the slip-
page of the clutch so that the generator cannot be driven faster
than the predetermined speed, the greater the speed of the engine
the more the clutch slips.

The current load is automatically taken care of by a compound
winding on the generator. The starting motor is a series wound
machine, that is, the entire armature current passes through the
field. The motor is provided with an over-running clutch, which

848 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

I
I

«>

►

«>

o
03

Q
to

Crray and Dams System 849

allows it to drive the engine but automatically disengages when
the engine starts so that the engine will not drive the motor. If
such a device were not fitted the generator might be injured by the
motor driving it at too high a speed.

As already explained, the function of the automatic cutout is
to disconnect the generator from the battery when the engine is
stopped or turning so slowly that its voltage is below that of the
battery. If this cutout were not provided the storage battery would
discharge back into the generator. ^

The cutout consists of an electro-magnet with two windings.
One is a shunt winding of many turns of fine wire and the other
a series winding of a few turns of heavy wire, both windings being
over a soft iron core. The shunt winding is permanently connected
across the positive and negative terminals of the generator, so that
when the generator comes up to charging speed, this winding ener-
gizes the magnet core and the magnet core attracts a steel arm that
closes the circuit between the generator and the battery.

So long as the cutout points are closed the current must pass
through the series winding of the cutout. This current adds its
magnetizing influence to that of the shunt winding and holds the
points together. The cutout is designed so that it closes at a car-
speed of 12 miles per hour and opens at 10.

If, now, the speed of the generator drops below charging speed,,
the current begins to flow through the cutout series winding in the
reverse direction. This weakens the pull and allows the points to-
fly apart, through the agency of a spring.

Now that a general idea of the different parts of the Gray &
Davis system has been obtained, the path of the current in the dif-
ferent wires will be explained. The illustration shows this sys-
tem with a very complete equipment. Besides the usual head, side
and tail lights, there are pillar lights, dome lights, a speedometer
light and an electric horn connection. It will be noticed that the
return circuits are through the frame, with the exception of the
connections between the storage battery and the starting motor.

First we will trace out the flow of current when the starting
switch is closed, this circuit being shown by the heavy black lines.
Current flows from the plus terminal of the storage battery out

850 Starting, lAghting and Ignition Systems

tCAO LIGHT

STARTING
MOTOR WITH
SWITCH

INDICATOR

DASH LIGHT'

^:?

HORN
BUTTON

FOR IGNITION

DOME OR PILLAR >

LIGHTS.OR£XTnA

BATTERY
REARUGHT

HEADLIGHT

DYNAMO WITH
REGULATOR &
CUT-OUT

FUSEDLIGHT-
IN6 SWITCH

SWITCH

Fig. 196. — ^Non-Teclmical Wiring Diagram Showing Gray & Davis Two

Unit, One Wire Lighting System

Gray and Davis System

851

^^t^<l» tf. ?■

a e

NCAO aiOC MCAM OtASM M"~" "^

(latim lahm mnPicAnp H

7 T f W«MT ««IT«M *

Drr«A

RCGULATOR AcCUTOUr

CUT-OUT POINTa
SCPlCd WINDING^
SHUNT WIMCMNA'

RCCULATOR POINTS
riCLO RCSISTANCC

ARnATUftl

fiAftfiibil

i?0flHfl<^.. ..••

DYNAMO

riCLO,

STARTINQ
dVlTCH

'4RnAru«K

5TARnN« MOTOR

P09

NCO

PAtTtRY

o o

Fig. 197. — ^Technical Wiring Diagram Showing Circuits in Oray & Davis
Two Unit Starting and One Wire Ughtlng System.

852 Starting, lAghting and Ignition Systems

through wire A to the motor, where it passes through the series
field and the armature and from thence through the wire T to the
starting switch and from there through the wire C to the negative
pole of the battery.

Below 9 or 10 miles an hour or when the motor is at rest the
cutout is open and therefore current for the lights must be fur-
nished by the battery, and its path is as follows : It runs out through
wire A to one terminal of the starting motor, where it goes to the
frame through the ground wire Z. Prom thence it runs to the
lamps. From the lamps the current passes to the junction switch,
where all the lamp terminals are connected to the terminal P, and
from here the current flows through the series field of the genera-
tor and on out through wire P to a terminal on the cutout, and
from thence to the ammeter over the short vdre E. Prom the am-
meter it goes via wire D to a binding post on the starting switch,
from which it connects with the other pole of the battery by wire
C. At or over 12 miles per hour the cutout contact points are closed
as previously described. Current is then supplied to the storage
battery if it needs charging and also to any of the lamps that are in
circuit.

If the battery needs recharging it is of course below the voltage
of the generator and therefore current will flow to it until its volt-
age becomes equal to that of the generator, when the flow will auto-
matically stop because the electrical pressure at the two points is
the same. The current passes from the positive terminal of the
generator through wire G to the series coil of the cutout and from
thence through wire Y to the frame. It flows through the frame
up through wire Z to one terminal oti the motor and from thence
through wire A to the plus pole of the battery. The return circuit
is through wires C and D to the ammeter and from thence through
wires E and P back to the generator. The flow of current from the
generator to the lamps is as follows : Through wire G and the series
coil of the cutout and wire Y to the frame. This part of the cir-
cuit is identical with that for charging the storage battery. Then
the current goes through the frame and up through the ground
wires to the lamps, from whence it passes to the terminals on the
junction switch and on through wire P to the generator. It will

Chray and Davis System

858

HEAD

DGHT

JUNCTION

REARUGHT

CARfRAMt

HEAD
U6HT

SIDE
rilGHTl

fig. 198.— Kon-Technical Wiring Diagram Sliowizig Arrangement of Parts
of Gray h Davis Two Unit^ Two Wire Starting and Lighting System,
Utilizing Oentrifagally Oovemed Generator.

854 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

smmiK^_r^Lo_

f^aCM.

\^£SAllif^

Fig. 199. — ^Technical Wiring Diagram Showing Circuits of Ghniy & Davis
Two nnit» Two Wire Jltarting and Lighting System.

Gray and Davis Systems 855

be noted that the generator and battery circuits to the lamps are
independent, so that should anything happen to the battery, the
lights could be operated by the generator alone.

Diagrams of Gray & Davis 1915 systems will be found on
diagrams, Figs. 196 to 199 inclusive, in both non-technical and
technical form. A number of parts comprising the 19f5 Gray &
Davis starting system is shown at Figs 200 and 201. The construc-
tion of the type Y motor used in connection with engines of the
open flywheel type is clearly shown in the part sectional view at the
top of the illustration. As the Gray & Davis systems may be had in
either the one wire or two wire type, two forms of switch are pro-
vided. One of these, which is shown at B, Fig. 200, is used in a two
wire system and has both terminals insulated. This must be wired
up as shown at E. The heavy leads from the storage battery are
connected as indicated. One of the storage battery terminals is con-
nected to the terminal on the starting motor, while the other start-
ing motor terminal wire goes to one of the insulated switch termi-
nals. The other insulated switch terminal is connected directly to
the remaining storage battery terminal, ^"hen used in connection
with the one wire system the starting switch has one terminal
grounded, as shown at C.

The approved arrangement of the starting switch is as depicted
at the top of the illustration, in which the contact is not estab-
lished until the sliding pinion has been meshed with the gear of
the. flywheel. The construction of the overrunning clutch used with
the Gray & Davis system is shown at D. This functions the same
as the overrunning clutch previously described, the drive being se-
cured between the member 4, which is keyed to the intermediate
shaft, and the reduction gear 2, which is turned by the motor pin-
ion 1 through the medium of the clutch rolls 3. Light coil springs
are employed to push plungers, designed to make more positive the
engagement of the rolls of the overrunning clutch.

The fuse block, which is an important adjunct of the one wire
system, is combined at the rear of the lighting switch, ajs shown at
A, Fig. 201. The function of the fuse is to bum out should an
overload occur in any circuit due to damaged insulation. The
fuses are readily renewable, these being shown at D. The fuse con-

856 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

iP»

:zsr

3iSS-

Fig. 200. — Qriovp of Farts of Stay A Davis 1916 Starting and LlgbtUig

Gray and Davis System

ng. 201. — Group Showing MlBceUaneoos Oompononts of IQIS Gray ft
Davis SUrtliiK and Lighting STBtem.

858 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

sists of a glass tube, which contains a piece of fusible alloy wire
that joinB two metal caps, these caps being used to establish con-
tact with the clips on the sides of the connectors at the back of tli«
switch. The fuses should be handled carefully, and in removing
same for examination it is well to do this with a sharp piece of

Fig. 202. — Hie dray & Davis Automatic Outont and Otuient Begultitliig
Belay on 1915 Systems.

wood, which is used as a pry back of the fuse instead of attemptii^
to remove them with pliers or a screwdriver, which may break the
glass or otherwise damage the fuse. An important adjunct to ^siat
in locating trouble is a six volt lamp, such as shown at C. This is
of material assistance in tracing circuits.

The latest form of Gray & Davis dynamo, which dispenses with

Gray and Davis System 359

the centrifugal governor used on the other types illustrated, is
shown at D, supplied for direct drive by an extension of the timing
gear shaft and for chain drive at E. The dynamo shown at D
is provided with gearing to drive a timer distributor for ignition
purposes. The current supply is governed by the regulator eut-out
(Fig. 202), which performs two duties in the new systems. One of

Fig. 203.— View SliDwine Application of Special Gray ft Savls One TTnlt
Ford System.

these is to regulate the dynamo to secure uniform current output,
while in the other instance it connects the dynamo into the system
only when sufficient current is generated to charge the battery.
Current regulation is provided by short circuiting or shunting field
resistances or to insert the field resistances into the field circuit.
The object of the field resistance is to retard the flow of current in
those windings. "When the dynamo is at rest the cutout points are
opened and the regulator points closed. As the dynamo first speeds
up the regulator points remain closed and the field resistance is short

860 Starting, Lighting arid Igmtion Systems

circuited. This permits the dynamo to build up its full field strength.
When the proper voltage is reached the cutout points close, permit-
ting current to flow through the series winding to the system. As
the dynamo speed increases beyond that necessary for full output,
the pull of the shunt winding attracts the regulator armature.
This reduces the pres-
sure at the regulator
points and inserts a re-
sistance into the field
circuit, this preventing
further increase of out-
p u t. The frequency
with which the resist-
ance is put into the cir-
cuit is in proportion
with the amount of
speed variation. The
form of battery used
with the Gray & Davis
system is shown in part
section at P, Fig. 201.
It does not differ ma-
terially in structure
from types previously
described.

One Unit Ford S7S-
tems. — "When one con-
siders the large number
of Ford cars that are in
daily use, and that these are not provided with an electric starting
system by the maker, it will be apptirent that a fertile field is
opened up among Ford users for the sale of starting motors.
Practically all Ford systems are of the one unit type, because
these constructions are especially well adapted for use at points
where simplicity is essential. The Gray & Davis one unit system
is shown installed at Fig. 203, and ready for installation on
the motor at Fig. 204. The armature is driven from the en^e

Fig. 204. — The Qiay & Davis One Unit Start-
ing and Lighting System Adapted for Ford
Automobiles.

Gray and Davis System for Ford Cars 361

Tig, 206. — Wiring Diagram Showing MeUiod of Ootmectlng Parts of Ora;
& Davis One Unit Ford System.

862 Starting, Lighting and Igmti&n Systems

crankshaft by two chains which provide a double reduction.
The machine is so constructed that it is adapted to fit a special
bracket that makes it possible to install the device on any Ford
motor without structural changes. The wiring diagram shown
at Pig. 205 is extremely simple. The six volt storage battery
has its positive terminal grounded while the negative terminal
is connected to the
motor generator by a
heavy wire which must
first pass through the
starting switch. The
circuit is completed by
a ground connection
through the support-
ing bracket when the
starting switch is de-
pressed. There are
two terminals on the
cutout relay on the top
of the motor generator ;
one of these is marked
L, the other B. Ter-
minal L leads to the
negative of the storage
battery, being attached to this lead on the battery side of the
alarting switch. Terminal B leads to the lighting switch. The
remaining wires are easily followed, these leading to the various
lamps, all of which operate on the one wire system.

The Genemotor which is shown at Pig. 206 is made by the
General Electric Company, and is a single unit operating on
twelve volts. It is permanently connected to the engine shaft
by a single Morse silent chain, the ratio of reduction being two
to one, which provides suificient torque for starting the motor
while at the same time the maximum armature speed is limited
to a safe value. The device becomes a generator at a car speed
of 12 m. p. h. on the direct drive. The motor generator is about
11 inches long, 7 inches in diameter, and weighs 52 pounds. It

Genemotor-Ford System

r-ffl

FlK- 207. — ^Wiling Diagrun of aenemotor-Foid StarUng and LlgbUng
System.

gives a starting torque of 86 foot pounds at the engine crank-
shaft, or*43 foot pounds at the armature operating with the 42-
ampere hour hatt«ry supplied with the system. It is mounted
on a pressed steel bracket designed for attachment at the left
side of the engine. The bracket rests on the cylinder base bolts
and is held rigidly in place by clamping it under the two water

Fig. 2D8. — ^wiring Dlagiam Showing Fftrts of Dodge-MoTth East Ono Unit
Starting and Lighting System.

864 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

connections, and adjustment is provided to keep the chain the
proper tension by two set screws in the bracket cradle. A flexible
drive is provided between the Generaotor armature and chain to
absorb all shocks on the chain. The starting switch and cutout
are mounted on top of the Glenemotor, making an integral con-

Fig. 20S. — Uetbod of Driving Dodge-Horth East Motor Qeuarator ty
Silent Cliaia Connection wlttL Engine Oruiksliaf t.

atruction. When starting the machine acts as a compound wound
aeries motor. As a generator the shunt field predominates. Cur-
rent regulation is secured by means of a third brush excitation
principle. The wiring diagram is very simple and can be readily
followed by referring to Pig. 207,

The Northeast Lighting and Starting System. — The North-
east System comprises a motor generator, starting switch, lock

Tig. 210. — ^Wiring Diagram Staotring Olrcolts of North Eut One Unit
24- Volt Starting and 12- Volt Lighting System.

366 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

North East One Unit System, 867

switch, and a battery, together with suitable gearing by which it
may be coupled to the engine, and in common with other one unit
systems it is very simple in operation. Parts comprising the North-
east System used on the Dodge car are clearly shown in the dia-
gram, Fig. 208, which also shows all the connecting wires that
form the circuits between the different elements. The method of

driving the machine is clearly shown at Fig. 209. A silent chain
joins the large sprocket on the engine crankshaft, with the smaller
sprocket carried by the motor generator armature shaft. An ec-
centric adjustment is provided which permits of moving the gen-
erator in such a way that the center line is brought closer to or
farther away from the crankshaft center line, as conditions de-
mand. This makes it possible to keep the chain always at the

368 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

Wfring-'-

Spec

oear

L Crank
J Shaft

Application fo Marmon 3£

213. — ^TiewB Sliowlns Method of Driving Nortli East UnlTonal
Starting and Lighting System Unit-

North East One Unit System 369

proper degree of tension to insure positive drive irithout whipping,
such as results when a chain is run too loosely. A wiring dia-
gram of a 24-volt startii^ but 12-volt lighting system is given
at Fig. 210.

1!hs Northeast motor-generator is said to be a one unit machine
in every sense of the word, as it is only one field, one armature,
and one. set of brushes. The armature has only one winding and

Tig. 311. — ^How tbe Kortli E&at Uotor 0«iierator Maj Be Installed c
Four Oyllndei Engines.

one commutator, and is the only moving part in the system. The
automatic battery cutout is embodied in the motor-generator.
This reduces wiring complications and makes the motor-generator
a, complete machine, contained in cme housing. The motor-gen-
erator weighs about 40 pounds, and is approximately B%" in
diameter and 10^" long. It is capable of spinning a 3?4" bore,
four-cylinder engine over 200 r. p. m. In common with most
single unit systems, the driving ratio between the motor-generator

870 Starting^ Lighting and Ignition Systems

and the engine is such that this is usually driven from two and a
half to three times the engine speed. A 24-volt 35-ampere hour
battery is called for by this system. The motor-generator is con-
nected by only two wires to the storage battery, and it is said
that these can be connected without regard to positive or negative
polarity. The starting switch also has but two connections to the
motor-generator which may be connected without regard to po-
larity. The system is so designed that no damage will result
from operating the starting switch while the engine is running.
The connections required are extremely simple as the wiring dia-
gram indicates. The four leads running from the motor-generator
are of heavy wire, those going from the storage battery to the
machine being of No. 4 cable while those running from the ma-
chine to the starting switch are of No. 6 cable. The lamps operate
on a three wire system, and while the storage battery delivers 24
volts to the motor-generator but 12 volts is put into any one of the
lighting circuits. Fourteen volt lamps are used throughout the
system.

The Northeast Universal System has been designed to make
possible the installation of this stiarting unit to old model cars in
which no special provisions are made for installing such a system.
The sectional view at Fig. 211 shows the method of carrying the
motor generator and how it is connected to the engine crankshaft
by a countershaft carried beneath the unit. It is designed to go
at the front of an automobile, being carried by special Tiraekets
which are adapted for almost any standard car. The method of
carrying the Northeast Universal System is clearly shown at Fig.
212. The countershaft projecting from the driving sprocket is
attached to the engine crankshaft in any suitable manner. A
common method of installation is to have the end of the counter-
shaft fit a coupling member that takes the place of the usual crank-
ing dog. The way this is done in case of the Marmon Model 32
car is clearly shown in the sectional diagram at the lower part
of Fig. 213. The upper part of this figure demonstrates the
simple installation of the unit at the front of the car.

The motor-generator is completely encased, as is the driving
^in ; there is no opportunity for dirt to collect around the parts

Bijur Starting and Lighting System 371

of the mechanism. When applied in this manner the engine
crankshaft is turned over in exactly the same way as it would be
by the hand crank, which, of course, is replaced by the counter-
shaft assembly driven from the electric machine. The front end
of the countershaft is provided with a conventional form of clutch
to make it possible to crank the engine by hand in exactly the

Ground to Body Bracket

Right Head Lamp

Ground to
Motor Support

Motor Generator ^L^^Q

,^^^

Shroud Lamp Ign, g^^
Starting Switch

Spare Plugs

2 8 4

Distributor

and
Interrupter

Electric //orn— rfh
Steering Column ^ HiJ,
Ruffnn- '® O-

Body

Marhei
Head

mpert
Hour Battery

Electric Door Look
Batt,Neg,

Current Indicator

Light Switch Tail Lamp

Left Head Lamp

COIL CONNECTIONS
No,1 -Terminal Connects to Switch and Interrupter
No.2~Terminal Connects to Interrupter
No.S'Terminal Connects to Switch

Fig. 215. — ^Wiring Diagram of Bijur-Scripps-Bootli One Unit Starting and

Lighting System.

same manner as is ordinarily done after the starting crank is
properly engaged. As the starting crank is only used in cases
of emergency where the battery has become depleted or where
some trouble exists in the electrical machine, it is made detachable
so that it can be carried in the tool box. The Northeast Universal
System functions in exactly the same manner as the built-in system
designed for specific makes of cars.

Bijur Starting and Lighting Systems.— Three types of Bijur
Starting and Lighting Equipments are manufactured; the sim-
plest is the single unit, in which one machine acts either as a motor
or generator, as conditions demand. The motor-generator equ?

872 Starting, lAghting and Ignition Systems

ment ia generally chain driven .from the crankshaft at a ratio
of approximately three to one. This type of machine asstmies
the function of a generator at about 100 r. p. m.^ so that with
ordinary rear axle ratios the generator function takes place and
the battery begins to charge at low car speeds. This machine is
provided with a shunt and series winding which act differentially
when operating as a generator and cumulatively when operating
as a motor. The voltage of the generator is variable as the regula-
tion is for current. At low speeds, the current is maintained sub-

Ftg. 216.— Wlrliig Diagram of BiJnr-AppeiBoti Two Unit Starting and
Llgbting System.

stantially constant, but diminishes at high speed. The regulation
is effected by .the differential action of the shunt and series field,
and also by reason of the fact that the shunt field is connected
between one of the main brushes and an auxiliary or regulating
brush.

As shown by the diagram at Pig. 215, which shows the elec-
trical equipment on the Scripps-Booth car, no automatic switch
is used. Connection between the motor generator and the battery
■ is made with a hand switch, and the motor-generator draws cur-

Bijur Starting and Lighting System 373

rent from the battery until the gas motor begins operating under
its own power and acquires a speed sufficient to drive the electrical
Unit at a speed of about 1,000 r. p. m. As this corresponds to an
engine speed of about 330 r. p. m., the carburetor throttle is usu-
ally adjusted so the engine cannot be throttled down to a speed
below the cut-in point of the motor-generator. This is done to
eliminate the non-stalling feature and* to prevent the battery

VOLTAGE
REQULATIOR

in^j4

AUTOMATIC SWITCH

WEm«c

vsmu

BATTERY

G Q

Fig. 217. — ^Diagram Showing Bijur System of Voltage Regulation.

discharging when a car is left standing idle. The Bijur one unit
system is designed to operate on 12 volts.

There are two two-unit systems, one of these having a series
starting motor and constant current generator. The other has
a constant voltage generator and series motor. Considering the
former the ^constant current generator is a shunt wound machine,
the regulation being effected by the shunt field being connected
between one of the main brushes and an auxiliary or regulating
brush. The units are self-contained and require no separate
mounting or connecting of the automatic switch, which is mounted
inside the aluminum housing on the commutator end of the ma-
chine. These machines are reversible and the connections betwew

874 Starting, Ldghtmg and Ignition Systems

battery and generator may be made without regard to polarity, a
■very valuable feature. Even if wrong connections are made, the
generator will reverse and assume the correct polarity to charge the
battery. Each machine is provided with a fuse in the field cur-
cuit to prevent injury in case the circuit and the battery is
opened. Running the generator , under theae conditions would
result in an abnormal rise in voltage which would damage the
field windings except for the protection offered by the fuse. The
application of the con-

stant current machine
is shown in the wiring
diagram of the Ap-
pearson system at Pig.
216.

The constant volt-
age generators are also
shuut wound and reg-
ulation is effected by
varying the excitation
in this winding. The
principal circuits for
the regulating mechan-
ism are shown in wir-
ing diagrams at Fig.
217. The method of
operation is as follows :
In series with the shunt
winding 11 is a fixed resistance 12, and regulation is obtained
by short circuiting this resistance when the generator voltage
falls below normal and removing the short circuit when th6 gen-
erator voltage rises above normal. The regulator for performing
this operation consists of an iron core 14 with a single winding
13, this winding being connected across the generator brushes.
The current in this winding and the resultant pull or magnetic
attraction of the core depends, therefore, upon the voltage of
the generator. The vibrating armature 15 is pulled away frona.
"ihe core by a spring. "When the spring pull predominates, tho

rig. 218. — YUlw Showing: Bijnr Vibrator Type
Q«Dorator Output Begnlatoi.

Bijur Starting and lAghting System 875

•

BATTERY CHARGE' CURVE

SHOWmS RATE AT WHICH A BATTERT 18 REOHARQKD B*!

1 1 1 1 . 1 I 1

r A

3IjyR' OENRRATOR' WITH ' VOLTAOE RBQTJLATOR

MOT(

)R SPEED 400 TO 20
FEST-MABK JAN_12j

lOO R.P.M.

-•-

»-,

•

CO
a

P 2.

-ot— tu-

I
O

if>

• X

^^^^

CUR>

f^Sv

EET

■w

)-4

0 '

I 'i

\ '

> 1

Time -HOURS
» \ s

9 1

0 1

1 1

2 1

3 14

Fig. 219. — ^Battery diarging Curve of BiJur ' Generator with Voltage

Begulator.

armature moves away from the core, closes contacts 17 and 18,
and provides a low resistance path around the resistance 12.
The field current increases and the generator voltage builds up;
when it exceeds its normal value the magnetic pull of the core
predominates and the armature is attracted to the core, thus

876 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systema

again inserting the resistance in the field circuit. One of the
main features of this regulator (Fig. 218} is that the contacts
which shunt the resistance in series with the field winding in and
out of circuit are continually shifting, and do not regularly make
contact at the same point. Each contact is mounted on a thin,
straight spring which is fixed at the end opposite the contact.

Tig. 220. — Parts of Eilui Starting and LlgbtitiK System.

The reeds carrying top and bottom contacts are mounted at a
90 degree angle so that the point of contact continually shifts
because of vibration and resulting oscillation of the contact. Con-
tinuous vibration is obtained because one of the contact reeds is
mounted on a regulator armature which vibrates at a high rate
of speed. The shifting of the contacts prevents the formation of
minute projections on the negative contact and corresponding re-

Bijur Starting System Parts 377

cesses in the positive contact, with the result that the contacts
never stick.

Wear manifests itself by the positive contact becoming thinner
and the negative growing thicker. Periodically, a disconnecting
plug is turned in its socket which reverses the polarity of the

ni:. 221.— View Showing Coustniction of 3ijuT Automatic Cunent
BegulatOT.

contact so that metal which has been deposited from one contact
to the other is returned. The regulator vibrations do not take
place at irregular or haphazard intervals, but in the order of
something like 100 to 150 times per second. The resulting voltage
is the resultant of a series of fine ripples above and below the
mean value for which the regulator is adjusted. The amplitud"

378 Starting, JJghting and Ignition Systems

Bijur System Parts 379

of tbese v&ves is very small, and &s the frequency is high, aatis-
factory lighting can be done directly from the generator with

no battery connected to the circuit. The generator is connected
to the battery, however, and all lights and other electrical devices
take their current from the battery terminals. The arrangement
of the voltage regulator is such that a discharged battery is charged
at a rapid rate while the charging rate tapers off as the battery
becomes charged. This is clearly shown by the curve sheet C-4,

Fig. 223. — ^Application <:

at Fig. 219. It will be observed that at the beginning of the
charging process with the battery practically discharged, a chain-
ing rate of 16 amperes was obtained, at the end of one hour, but
14.2 amperes were delivered to the battery. At the end of three
hours the charging current had tapered down to 11.3 amperes.
At the end of eight hours but 6^ amperes was flowing to the
battery. In thirteen hours time the minimum charging rate of
4% amperes had been reached.

In the constant voltage equipment the automatic switch, vol-
tage regulator and field resistance unit are mounted in an alu-

880 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

minum box carried at the top of the generator, as shown in Fig.
220. This box is held in place by a single knurled nut and by
three connecting pins or plugs which fit into receptacles in the
generator. The two wires leading from the generator are soldered
into a connecting plug, which in turn fits into a receptacle of the
regulator box. The regulator mechanism can be changed readily
by anyone, as no electrical or mechanical knowledge or skill is

MUkO LAH^

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Morpjf

0tSTie/3aroK

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ZOIL.

u^MTirt^ Awyrew

i\j\

— ^

•tHSTtUMe/rt L.AM^

Fig. 224. — ^Wiring Diagram Showing Circuits of Bijur-Hupmobile Starting

and Lighting System.

required. In Fig. 221 the regulator box is shown with the cover
removed, which exposes the automatic switch and the field resist-
ance. This also shows an end vie\^ in which the connecting pins
are shown, and a view of the disconnecting and reversing plugs
also. An amperemeter is used in some of the Bijur systems, such
as that at Fig. 168, B, which shows the wiring diagram of a
Packard six-cylinder car, and in Fig. 222, which shows the sys-
tem used on the Packard Twin Six, The amperemeter is con-

Bijur System Parts 381

nected between the generator and the battery and shows only-
generator output. Whenever the engine is running the meter
should indicate, and its failure to do so gives prompt notice that
there is trouble.

The Bijur two unit systems are subjected to a division on
account of the starting motors that are used, there being two
types, geared and direct acting. In the geared type, double re-
duction gears are included between the starting motor and the
engine flywheel. An over-running clutch is included in the gear-
ing. In the direct acting type the motor pinion meshes directly
with the flywheel teeth, the double reduction gearing and roller
clutch being omitted. The motor has a square shaft and a pinion
having a correspondingly broached hole can be moved horizontally
on the shaft into and out of mesh with the flywheel. The motor
shown in Fig. 220 is of this type. The direct acting motors can
also be used in connecting with the Bendix drive in which a screw
shaft carrying a weighted pinion provides for automatic shifting.
The standard voltage for the Bijur two unit equipments is 6
volts, though these have been manufactured in 12, 16, and 18
volt systems.

A variety of starting switches are manufactured, these usually
being selected according to the form of starting motor used.
The usual type is provided with a preliminary contact which con-
nects the battery and starting motor through a resistance located
inside of the switch. This preliminary contact is made just prior
to meshing the starting gears and flywheels and causes the motor
to rotate at low speed and with little power, so that proper mesh-
ing of the gears is insured without any liability of stripping them.
The switches may be direct acting or indirect acting. That shown
at Pig. 220 is a direct acting switch having a foot-operated plunger
which is intended to project through the floor board. Depressing
this heel button makes the two switch contacts, and also shifts the
gears into mesh with the flywheel through a mechanical interlock
provided for that purpose. In the indirect acting type the start-
ing switch is connected through a system of linkage to a starting
pedal located at the driver's seat. Switches are also made in which
no preliminary contact is used. The method of meshing the gears

382 Starting, Lighting and Ignition System*

Bijur-Packard System 888

with the single contact switch is illustrated at Fig. 160 in the
preceding chapter. The mounting of the generator, motor and
starting switch for the Hupp Model N car is clearly outlined at
Fig. 223. The complete wiring diagram for the Hupp, which shows
the manner in which the various units are connected together, is
shown at Fig. 224. In this system ignition is by the battery
through the conventional short contact timer and distributor and
induction coil. In the Apperson System, outlined at Fig. 216,
a high tension magneto is used for ignition. This is also the type
of ignition used in connection with the starting and lighting sys-
tem of the Model 21-A Winton Six, shown at Fig. 225.

Bijur-Packard System. — The self -starting and lighting system.
Fig. 168, B, used on the 1915 six-cylinder Packard, is manufac-
tured by the Bijur Motor Lighting Co. In this system the starting
motor and generator are separate units. The starting circuit is
simple, consisting of a motor connected directly to the battery
and operated by closing a starting switch.

In the generator circuit the principal parts are: The generator;
an automatic switch for breaking the circuit when the speed of the
generator becomes so low that the battery current would discharge
through it, and a voltage regulator of the vibrator* type. A study
of the wiring diagram shows that the automatic switch has two
coils, a voltage coil of high resistance connected across the wires
leading to the battery and a current coil in series with the genera-
tor and battery. The action of this coil is such that as the arma-
ture speed increases and the voltage becomes greater, the magnet-
ism generated in this coil attracts a small steel arm, thus completing
circuit between the battery and the generator. Current then flows
to the battery and lights.

On the other hand, as the speed of the generator decreases, its
voltage becomes less and finally a point is reached where the cur-
rent begins to flow back into the generator. This reversal of flow
produces a magnetic field in the series coil of the cutout which
opposes the field produced by the voltage coil, until finally the at-
traction of the latter for the steel arm that completes the circuit is
entirely overcome and then the arm, impelled by a spring, breaks
contact.

884 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

The voltage regulator operates on the vibrator principle, and is
designed so that when the voltage becomes higher than the predeter-
mined amount the vibrator throws a resistance into circuit that re-
duces the amount of current flowing through the field, as has been
previously described. Nothing in the wiring is unusual and the
diagram may be easily followed in view of the complete explana-
tion previously given of the Bijur systems.

"■ lAMPS

Fig. 226. — SlmpUfied Wiring Diagram Showing Action of Simma-Hufl

Starting and Ugliting System.

The Simms-Huff Single Unit System. — The operation of this
one unit system differs from the Dyneto iu that the wiring ar-
rangement is so designed that the non-stalling feature is elim-
inated. The simplified wiring diagram which is presented at Fig.
226 shows that this system operates on the one wire method, and
that the wiring is such that a 12-volt series battery arrangement
is used in starting while the 6-volt parallel charging scheme is
followed. The starting switch, which may be either foot- or hand-
<^rated, automatically controls the battery connection and pro-

Simms-Huff One Urdt System

385

vides a wiring scheme for the lighting circuit which insures healthy
battery action and makes for minimum fluctuation in candle power
when the motor, fer instance, is being cranked with the lights
burning or at the other extreme when the engine is raced.
Through the inherent winding arrangement, when the motors-
generator is used for starting, it automatically becomes a 12 volt
cumulative compound motor which on being driven by the starting
of the engine becomes a differential dynamo and charges the
batteries at a predetermined rate which can be varied by a single
regulator adjustment that is easily made.

The small diagrams in Fig. 226 show the inherent winding
arrangement which automatically accomplishes these results. On

• 14

•< 10

;

•

1 '

0= K,

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r—

)

}

)

Miles per Hour on High Gear.

Fig. 227. — Curve Showing Current Output of Simms-HufiP Generator.

examining the directions of the arrows it will be seen that the
current which the arrows represent flows in the opposite direction
in the series field when charging than it does when starting. The
action of the powerful field winding is to assist the motor when
starting by increasing the strength of the magnetic field and to
weaken the field strength of the dynamo when charging and pre-
vent an overcharge at high speed. In this manner it automati-
cally assists the regulation of the charging current delivered to
the battery. The charging current increases from zero to its maxi-
mum with a very small increase in car spetftd. fhis is clearly
shown in the graphical diagram at Fig. 227, as this outlines the

386 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

rate of charge in amperes corresponding to car speed in m. p. h.
with the ordinary gear ratios and wheel sizes. This curve illus-
trates a sudden rise in current which starts «t a speed of about
. 12 m. p. h. and which reaches its full value of 10 amperes before
the speed is increased over 13 miles per M. P. H. From this point
on the generator delivers a current having a value of 10 amperes
regardless of engine or car speed.

The construction of the unit is clearly shown at Fig. 228. The
yoke and field winding assembly shows clearly the hexagon yoke

Fig. 228. — Views Sbowlng OonstracUon of Slmms-Hnfl iSotax-Omeiatot.

which makes it easy to mount the device on the engine and at the
same time gives a maximum field strength with economy in space
and weight. The armature is an iron clad drum vrindin^ tmd is
perfectly balanced. The complete unit with the cover removed
from the end to permit of ready inspection of commutator and
brushes is also outlined. The wiring diagram at Fig. 229 shows
the application of the complete system to the Maxwell car while
the method of' attaching the generator to the engine is clearly de-
'"eted at Pig. 230.

Simms-Huf System

387

888 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

The unit is connected to the gas en^e tlirougli a gear reduc-
tion in the conventional manner. The starting is accomplished
hj depressing a starter pedal which provides an interlock between
the starting switch and the gear reduction. When contact is made
at the starting switch the current Sows through the armature and
field windings, these drawing approximately 40 amperes from the
storage hattery to start a 4 cylinder car of 30 H, P. The crank-
ing speed depends upon the ratio of gear reduction and condi-
tion of the motor. The starting switch construction is holted to
the left side of the transmission case and the -interior arrangement

Tig. 230. — Htrw the fiinmiB-Hnfl Motor-Qenerator Is Iiutallod on tba
Maxwell Engine.

is such as to automatically connect the two halves of the storage
battery in- series when starting which means a current of 12 volts,
or in parallel when generating, which means a chaining current of
6 volts. As applied to the Maxwell engine the machine is geared
to the flywheel by a sliding pinion when starting and is driven by
the fan belt from the front end when generating.

In common with all systems involving the use of the generator

and storage battery together and not having the non-stalling fea-

^, it is essential to provide some means of preventing the bat-

1
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Fiff. M >^^™ SUrtins Motor.

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and
tur

Simma-Huf System 889

tery from' discha^mg info the generator when the engine is at a
standstill or whenever the terminal voltage of the generator is less
than that of the battery. To attain this object a cut-out relay is
inserted in the charging circuit and is equipped with a compound
' hunt and series winding. As the generator voltage builds up, the
arrent through the shunt winding closes the cutout and permits
I le generator to charge into the storage battery, "When the gen-
erator voltage falls below that of a storage battery the battery
current passing through the series field winding of the cutout
automatically demagnetizes the core and the circuit leading to
the generator is opened, this preventing discharge of the battery.
The cutout and regu-
lator serves the double
purpose of a cutout
relay and regulation
independent of belt
tension. It is essen-
tially two distinct re-
lays, one serving to
regulate the amount of
chaise from the gen-
erator to the storage
battery regardless of
' 't tension. To ac-
mplish this last step

■ le shunt field of the
"•enerator is brought

;to the regulator at
le terminal marked

■ P. L. D." by means

I vibrating contacts and additional resistance is automatically
cut in the dynamo field when the voltage rises and cut out when
the dynamo voltage lowers. In this manner the dynamo is made
to hold to a practically constant curreift output which means a
constant charge into the battery. It must be understood, how-
ever, that the belt tension must be sufficient to give the generator
proper speed for producing a charging current, as the regulator

Fig.. 232. — Siagram ExplalnlnK Automatic
Flnlon Shift of Boscta-BoBbmote Starting
Motor.

390 Starting J Lighting and Ignition Systems

is only intended to prevent excessive current generation. An ad-
justment is provided by means of a slotted segment and bolt on
the fan support for varying the belt tension.

The Bosch-Bushmore System. — Bosch-Rushmore Systems are
made in two forms, the chief difference being in the generator con-
struction. One form is of the current regulation type, while the
other operates on the voltage regulation principle. The complete
wiring diagram given at Pig. 231 shows all connections of the
Bosch Standard Lighting and Starting System. A supplementary
circuit diagram is presented to show the methods of current regu-
lation. This is accomplished by a ballast or bucking coil which
interposes resistance to weaken the magnetic field and keep the
generator output reasonably constant. The starting motor is of
the well-known Rushmore pattern which has the automatic gear
meshing feature produced by a laterally shiftable armature. The
method of operation is outlined it Fig. 232. The starting motor
armature is normally pushed over to one side of the motor field,
the position being such that the starting pinion carried on the
armature shaft is out of mesh with the large flywheel gear. A
12 volt battery is used in connection with this system. The first
movement of the starting switch plunger draws the armature into
the field and against the resistance of the coil spring that act to
unmesh the gears. Further movement permits the starting cur-
rent to flow through the starting motor windings, which of course,
turns the engine over after the pinion has been positively meshed
with the flywheel gear.

Some of the parts comprising the Bosch System are shown at
Fig. 233. The Bosch De Luxe System, which is the electrical
equipment of the Model 6-41-1915 Marmon car is shown at Fig.
234. The application of the ignition generating and starting units
to the 6-41 power plant is outlined at Fig. 235. The generator
and ignition magneto are placed on the same side of the motor
while the starting motor is placed on the valve side and is carried
by a substantial bracket in such a position that the pinion on the
armature shaft will engage promptly with the starting gear cut
on the flywheeL The application of the various control units of

Bosch-Bushmore System 391

the De Luxe system on the ear may be readily ascertained by in-
specting the views at Fig, 236. The ignition function is normally

Fig. 233. — Parts of the Bosch-Bushmoie Starting and Ligtatiug System.

independent of the lighting and starting system as a Bosch "Vi-
brating Duplex" magneto is employed, Tlie only time the battery

392 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

is called upon to contribute to the ignition is when the engine is
craxiked over very slowly, when it produces a spark through the
Duplex coil to facilitate starting. A special enclosed type of coil
is mounted under the dash cowl, this is in series with the battery
and also with the primary winding of the magneto. With this
system only a single wire runs to the magneto, and no additional
timing device is necessary. When the ignition switch is on battery
position the coil receives current from the storage battery, this
augments the natural action of the magneto and gives a hot spark
even at very low speeds. The coil is connected so that it will
operate over a wide range of voltage and will provide positive
ignition even though the starting motor will barely turn the engine
over on account of a depreciated battery.

When the starter pedal is released after the engine starts the
ignition switch should be moved to the "MN" or the magneto
position in order *to obtain straight magneto ignition. A 12 volt
starting and lighting circuit is employed, all units, including the
lamps being of this voltage. The one wire system is employed,
the positive battery connection being grounded through a fuse.
Instead of relying upon local grounds for each connection an
armored cable is used which not only serves to protect the wires
but the metallic armor makes a positive return. An ingenious
connection is provided for joining the various cables, so that not
only a fine mechanical joint is obtained but at the same time a
good electrical contact results. The generator is a simple shunt
wound machine obtaining all regulations by means of external ap-
pliauces. I'he rotating armature, which is carried on ball bear-
ings, is provided with a fan for purposes of ventilation. An auto-
matic reverse current relay in the switch and meter box on the
dash opens the battery circuit whenever the generator is not run-
ning, thus preventing an escape of battery current through the
generator.

A voltage regulator provides for the constant maintenance of
the correct electro-motive force at all times. The regulator is so
constructed that it will maintain a fixed voltage while carrying
the entire lamp load at low motor speed and will not vary when

Bosch-Rushmore System 393

a change ia made either in speed or load. The regulation means
■. must also take care of the Lntemal conditions of the battery. IE .

Tig. 234. — Wtrlng Diagram Sliowing B«lation of Parts of BOBcb-Biubmoie
Starting and Lighting System Used on ttie.Uannon Slx-41 Autraioblle.

the battery is totally discharged the regulation must be such that
a taperinc charge is given. The amount of current Sowing to the

394 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

battery must become less as the charge nears completion. The
regulator requires absolutely no attention as there is practically

Fig. 236.— Method of InatEOllng BoBcli-BuBtunore Starting Motora on Uar-
mon Bnginea Sliowa at the Top. Location of Ignition Magneto and
Current Generator Depicted at the Bottom.

nothing to get out of order. The generator terminals, lamp and
battery wires all lead into the switch box on the dash, which con-
tains, besides the regulating devices, the volt-ammeter and the

Bosch-Bushmore System 395

lighting switch. The volt-ammeter permits a constant cheek on the
operation of the system. When the control lever is thrown to the
left the needle should show 12 to 15 volts when the engine is run-
ning rapidly or about 12 volts when the engine is stopped. When
the lever is turned to the right to indicate amperes the current dis-
charge when engine is not running is about 8 amperes for the full

Tig. 236. — Views Sbowlog Control Members of BoBch-SiIamioii Starting
and Lighting Srstem.

lamp load, and will vary from this point to 8 or 10 amperes charge
with a rapidly running motor, no lamp load and a partially dis-
charged battery. Whenever tlie needle indicating amperes is to
the right of zero the battery is being charged. Whenever the
needle is to the left of zero current is being drawn from the bat-
tery. The starting motor (Fig, 237) is strapped firmly to the
crank case and is a simple but powerful series wound motor hav-
ing a movable armature. The motor is a olain bearing type, so oil

896 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

must be placed in the oilers periodically. The instraetions given
for the care of storage batteries in connection with other sfstems
apply just as well to the Bosch System.

Fig. 237. — Sectional Dtagiam at A SbowE Internal OonstrncUon of Boscli-
BuBhmOTe Starting Motor Wlilcli is SHown Dlamantled at B.

Remy Starting, Lighting and Ignition Sjrgtems. — The Remy

Systems are made in a number of patterns, moat of these operating
on the two unit principle. The Remy System used on the Oakland
Model 32 uses the No. 166 ignition generator and the model No.
114 starting motor. The model 166 ignition generator is similar in

Remy Two Unit System

897

construction to that shown at the left of Fig. 239 except for the
mouiiting of the cutout relay which is placed at the back of the
instrument, instead of on a bracket close to the coil. The parts
comprising the Oakland starting and lighting system are clearly
shown in Fig. 240, all circuits which operate on the one wire prin-
ciple being clearly shown. The ignition generator is a low speed,
6 volt machine of the four pole shunt wound type and is driven
at one and one half times crankshaft speed. The maximum cur-
rent output is obtained
at moderate car speed
and it generates ample
current to keep the
battery fully charged.
The control of the
current output is auto-
matically obtained by
a vibrator type of
regulator. The arma-
ture is a slotted drum
type and is carefully
balanced in order to
minimize bearing
stresses. The ignition
distributor, which em-
bodies the distributing

mechanism and circuit breaker is simple in design and is posi-
tively driven from the armature shaft. The ignition coil is also
mounted on the generator in order to simplify wiring.

The starting motor is a four pole series wound machine using
the Edipse-Bendix automatic transmission to connect the motor
with the engine. In this type the extended armature shaft carries
a hardened steel sleeve upon which a triple worm gear is cut.
Operating upon this sleeve is a hardened steel pinion having a
lateral travel of about 1%". When the current is supplied to the
starting motor, the armature, being free, begins to revolve at a high
rate of speed. The pinion, by reason of its property of inertia

Wiring Diagram for Type "'X"
Flpvheel Surti^g Motors.

Switch

Fig. 238. — ^Wiring Diagram for Type A Bosch-
Bushmore Starting Motor.

398 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

Fig. 239. — Parts of Bemy Two tTnlt ataning, Lighting and Iguitloii

Remy Two Unit System

399

tends to stand still and is drawn by the worm along the sleeve and
into mesh with the gear which is cut upon the flywheel. The
starting switch is a very simple fitting, designed especially for use
with the automatic pinion shift. The combination lighting and
ignition switch has two removable keys, that at the left controlling
the lighting service and on the right the ignition circuit. The
lighting switch has three positions. One in which all lights are
off, a second in which the dash light is bright and the tail lights

HCflO

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COMBINED UCHTINC »•
IGNITION SWITCH

TAIIUCHT

IGNITION COIL

1 7::"y~"Vi

COWLUCHT

•4N

OJSECOMMERCIM
10 /VIP OBE WRO

5T7\RTD? SWITCH

STORAGE
WTTEFY

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A
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-K>

BREWER BOK

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06T»IBUT0R

!9 o Q'l

TOSmRK
^PLUCS

MOOCLeO REU\Y
KCaATOR •

dJBECOMMERCWL-^
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MOTOR

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Fig. 241. — ^Wiring Diagram Showing Circuits of Bemy-Oakland Starting,

Lighting and Ignition System.

and head lights ai*e dim and a third position in which all lights are
bright. The cutout relay regulator used in connection with this
system is also shown at Fig. 239 with the cover removed. The
cutout operates on the same principle that has been previously de-
scribed and acts merely to prevent discharge of the battery through
the generator when the engine is not running. The contact points
of the cutout are held together only as long as the voltage of the
generator is in excess of the battery voltage.

The regulator portion consists of an electro magnet, an arm

400 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

operating on hardened bronzed pivots; two sets of contact points,
two of which are mounted upon springs and a resistance unit.
When the generator is running at a speed lower than that re-
quired for maximum output the regulator contact points are held
together by a spring under the arm and the current supplied to
the generator field passes directly through these points. As soon,
however, as the speed of the generator increases to such a point
that the output rises above the predetermined maximum, the charg-
ing current which is flowing through the coil on the electro mag-
net energizes it to such an extent that it pulls the arm down. This
pulls the contact points apart and forces the field current which
had heretofore been passing through these points to pass through
the resistance unit. The resistance decreases the field current
which in turn diminishes the output of the generator. As this
reduces the energizing- effect of the electro-magnet, the spring forces
the contact points together and the resistance is cut out of the field
circuit. A continuous repetition of this operation sends a pul-
sating current to the generator field and holds the output of the
generator at practically a constant value. . For the purpose of pro-
tecting the generator, an easily accessible fuse is fitted to the relay
regulator base. In case the battery should become disconnected,
either through accident or neglect, this fuse will burn out, rendering
the generator inoperative and damage proof. The wiring diagram
presented in technical form of the Remy-Oakland 32 system is
shown at Fig. 241. In view of the explanations that have been
previously give no diflSculty should be experienced in tracing the
various connections, especially if the wires are compared with
those on Fig. 240, which show the connections to the units com-
prising the system but not the internal connections of the units.

Another Remy Starting and Lighting System uses the model
165 ignition generator which is shown at Fig. 242. This includes
a standard magneto distributor and circuit breaker and forms a
single unit from which current for lighting, ignition and starting
is obtained. The ignition generator carries the full lamp and igni-
tion load of approximately 7% amperes at a car speed of from 10
to 12 miles per hour. The output of this generator is regulated by
the well known third brush system. At low speeds the magnetic

Remy Two Unit System 401

flux of a generator is evenly distributed along the basis of genera^
tor pole pieces, but at high speeds it becomes destroyed. The third
brush which supplies current to the generator field winding is so
located in relation to the main line brush of opposite polarity that
this distortion of the magnetic flux reduces the current which it
supplies to the field winding. This decrease of field current natu-
rally causes a decrease in the output of the generator and prevents
it from attaining a harmful value. The only external regulating
device used is a reverse" current relay to prevent the storage battery
discharging back through the generator. The current for ignition
is taken from the storage battery and is passed through the induo-

Fig. 242.^VlewB Showing Bemy Ignitlou QeneratOT XTnlt and Anothei
Form of Starting Uotor.

tion coil before it is delivered to the distributor of the generator.
The complete Remy lighting, starting and ignition system used on
the Reo ear is shown at Fig. 243. This diagram is especially valu-
able inasmuch as it not only shows all circuits but also the size of
the wires needed to connect the various units together.

In connection with the Remy-Oakland system it is stated that

402 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

the ignition switch must be placed in the "off" position when the
engine ia not running. If it is let in the "on" position when the
engine is not running, current from the storage battery will be
dissipated in the ignition coil and will result in battery exhaustion.
The battery should never be disconnected while the engine is run-
ning as this will cause a generator protective fuse on the relay
regulator base to bum out. In case this fuse should bum out and
an extra one is not available it is possible to proceed without a
fuse as the charge in the battery will operate the ignition, lamps

Tig. 211. — Wiring DlAgr&m of Bemf-NEttional Two Aimatnre System.

and horns in eases of emergency. A new fuse may readily be
made of commercial 10 ampere fuse wire. Six volts, single point
Mazda bulbs may be used, but their life will not be as loi^ as 6^
or 7 volt bulbs.

Bemy Two-Anuatnre Lighting and Starting System. — The
electric starting motor and lighting generator on Series AA Na-
tional cars is the Remy Model 150 six volt system. The electric
machine employs two separate armatures and two separate fields,
the motor being superimposed upon the generator, although both
^ in one steel casting, making a neat, compact unit, familiarly

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Remy^ Two Armature System 403

dubbed a ''double decker." The wiring diagram is shown at
Fig. 244.

The two armatures are connected together by a train of gears
and an overrunning clutch, so that the gears and motor armature
are in operation only when the starting switch is pressed. Incor-
porating the reduction gearing and overrunning clutch of the
starting-generator unit in an oil bath, insures silent operation dur-
ing starting, as external gears and the meshing of the same are
entirely eliminated.

The unit has only one drive shaft and is connected to the en-
gine by an Oldham coupling. This allows of quick and easy re-
moval from the engine for inspection if necessary, although large
inspection plates are provided on the unit itself, which is con-
veniently and accessibly located on the engine. Although the frame
for the two units is a steel casting, the magnetic circuits are en-
tirely independent, as may be seen. from the illustration. The
generator i^ shunt wound and is automatically regulated for con-
stant current by a vibrator, which is mounted on the same base
with the relay or electric cutout. The function of the regulator is
to keep the output of the generator constant regardless of the
speed of the engine. The relay is simply an electric switch which
opens and closes the circuit between the generator and battery auto-
matically to prevent dissipation of battery current in the generator
when the engine is at rest.

The motor is of the conventional series type and is wound to
withstand heavy overloads. Armatures, brush holders, fields, etc.,
are built in accordance with ' tandard electrical practice. The gen-
erator windings are protected against injury by means of a fuse
located on the relay-regulator base. Should the battery become
disconnected either through accident or neglect, this fuse will burn,
thus protecting generator and field against excessive voltage, which
would result if the field circuit were not opened.

To start the engine the operator presses the starting switch,
which puts the motor armature into motion, engages the gearing
and clutch, and turns the engine over. When the engine is run-
ning under its own power the clutch and engine are automatically
disengaged and the unit operates only as a generator. The lamp

404 Starting, Lighting and Igmtion Systems

load of the car is carried by the generator at about 12 miles per
hour. Aa a "tell-tale" an indicator is employed, from which the
operator may determine whether the generator is working prop-
erly, A simple lighting switch is used for turning on any combina-
tion of lamps. No side lamps are used, as the head lamps contain
small independent bulbs for signal lamps. The two-wire system of
wiring is used. It has been carefully developed, resulting in a very
simple layout, as may be seen from the accompanying wiring plan
of the system as applied to the six-cylinder National ear.

The Westinghoufle Systems. — The Westinghouse systems oper-
ate on the regenerative principle, i,e., when the engine is not run-
ning or when it is running at a very low speed the current load is
taken by the battery and the power thus absorbed is returned to the
battery when the ear is running at usual speeds during the day.
The generator has an output at average ear speeds sufficient to carry
an ample lighting equipment without drawing on the battery for
power. The Westinghouse generators are compact and are in-
tended to operate at the usual magneto shaft speed. They can be
connected directly to the driving shaft with an ordinary Oldham
coupling, and the design is such that the center line of the arma-
ture shaft is at the usual magneto shaft height. When a generator

Westinghouse Systems 405

attains a speed higher than that at which it generates the battery
Yoltage, an automatic switch inside the generator automatically
connects the generator to the circuit. This switch is so adjusted
that it disconnects the generator at a speed about 25% lower than
the *'cut in'' speed, the difference in speed between ** connection
and ''disconnection'' provides against the switch operating ''in
and "out" continuously when the car is running at the speed at
which the switch closes the circuit.

As is common in other systems mentioned the generators are of
two types with respect to the regulation of output. In one the
current supplied by the generator is regulated inherently by the
winding of the machine, the control of the voltage depending upon
the storage battery. In the other type an automatic potential regu-
lator which forms part of the generator keeps the voltage constant
and regulates the battery charge. The Westinghouse generators
can be furnished with or without ignition parts. Where the igni-
tion is incorporated with the generator, as at Figs. 245 and 246,
the general construction follows closely that of other battery igni-
tion systems in. principle as the battery current is transformed in
an induction coil to a- value sufficiently high to overcome the re-
sistance of the air gap at the spark plugs. The interrupter is
mounted on the generator shaft and the contacts are operated by
a centrifugal device that automatically times the degree of spark
advance to the speed of the engine. The distributor is of the usual
face plate type but specially designed so the distributor plate can
be placed in position without interfering with the contact brushes
and without the use of tools. The internal wiring of the ignition-
generator is shown at Fig. 247.

The various forms of Westinghouse generators have been pre-
viously described. All the Westinghouse motors are series wound
and are entirely enclosed. The rectangular shape is followed in
some which makes them easily located and permits the rigid mount-
ing. The motors may have integral planetary reduction gearing
or may be provided with shafts to permit of mechanical or auto-
matic shifting of the pinion with the flywheel gear. The starting
switches are of two types, the mechanically actuated and the mag'
netically operated types.

406 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

Tig. 246. — Showing Arrangement of Ignition Farts of WestingbouM
Ignition aenerator Unit.

The Westinghouae starting motor using the automatic gear
shift is made in two patterns, as shown at Fig. 248. One of these,
known as the inboard, is so mounted that rotation of the armature
shaft draws the starting pinion toward the motor. The outboard
design illustrated below it is so arranged that the pinion is shifted
away from the motor when the armature starts to turn. Obviously,
the way the pinion will shift is determined by the angularity of
■ spiralthread. If the thread is right handed the pinion will be

Westinghouse Systems

Tig. 24,7. — ^Wiling Diagram of Westingliouee Ignition Genetator.

shifted in one direction, if left handed it will be moved in the
other. The inboard type of motor is intended for use where the
flywheel is exposed while the outboard form has been designed
for attachment to the flywheel ease of a power plant having an en-
closed flywheel. The two switches are also shown in this illustra-

Fig. 248. — Two Types of Westlnghouse Starting Motors and Operatlug

3wltclies.

408 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

tion. The magnetic switch is a simple form operated by a push
button. The plunger switch follows the conventional design for de-
vices of this character. The Vfiring diagram when the plunger
switch is used is very simple as outlined at A, Fig, 249. The other
circuit at B shows the method of connecting the electro-magnetic
starting switch.

The application of a Westinghonse generator of the simple form
to a 1916 National Twin Six engine is shown at the top of Fig. 250.
The method of mounting the starting motor is clearly shown in
the top view of the motor at the bottom of the illustration. The

Fig. 249.^Wlrlng Diagram Sbowing tbe Use of tlie Westinghonse Start-
ing Motor with MecluHilcal Svltcli at A and Tltli Uagnetic Svltcb
and Oeneratoi at B.

■wiring of the Westinghouse lighting circuit is shown at Fig, 251.
This does not differ greatly from other one wire systems having
a separately mounted current regulator. The complete wiring dia-
gram presented at Fig. 252 is that used on the Pierce-Arrow closed
cars and shows all necessary connections as well as the various
circuits for a comprehensive starting and lighting system.

Tbe various accessory devices comprising the Westinghouse
system are built on approved electrical principles. Some of these
are shown at Fig. 253. To prevent injury to the battery and lights
through short circuits due to accidents or carelessness, fuses should
be used in all lighting circuits. The Westinghouse fuse boxes are
"''t only thoroughly enclosed but they are arranged to use enclosed

Westinghouse System

Tig. 260— Vlewa Sliowlng tte Fractlcol Application of Uie WastlnglioDse
Clenerator and Starting Motor to National Twin Six Engine.

fiisos which do not prodiice a spark when they blow, A four-cir-
cuit fuse box, as illustrated, is necessary if a dome light or buzzer
is used, though a three-circuit fuse boi will be adequate in tlie
ordinary open car lighting system. A circuit is usually provided
for the head lights, one for the side lights, and an extra circuit fo

410 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

i--

-V

Btf^iw

<M.A<f

V|7

rfh'n'ifitil.

/■««*/

a.'?i

'•zy

Fig. 261.— Wiring Diagram of Westioghoose Iiighting Syatem.

Westinghouae Systems

412 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

the meter light, horn, trouble lamp, etc. The tail light can be so
connected that it will light when either the head lights or side
lights are illuminated or when both are used. The screws used for
making eonneetions to the fuse terminals are of a pattern that can-
not be entirely removed, which prevents their being lost. The fuses

Fig. 253. — Fuse Box, Connection Block, Juuctton Box and Iiightlng
Swltcb Used lu Oouuectloii wltli WeetingDouse lighting System.

are of the indicating type, or glass tube fuses may be supplied in
which the fuse wire itself is visible. A 15 ampere fuse should be
used in the head light circuit, a 5 ampere fuse in the side light
circuit and 15 ampere fuses in the extra circuit. The lighting
switches used are of the push button type and are similar in opera-
tion to those used in house lighting. They are made in two, three

Westinghoiise System

413

and four gang types, or may be of the form shown at Fig. 253,
which combines an ignition switch. Coupling boxes are provided
to make possible the ready removal of the body from the chassis
as these bring all the wiring to one point and make it possible to
disconnect the bodies without cutting wires or unsoldering joints.
Small junction boxes are used wherever a branch circuit is tapped

ENLARQEO VIBW SHOWING
ROLLBR OLQTOH

GEAR ,MOTOR DRIVBN

OXAB

8IDB FLATS

GEAR 8BIFT
LSVER

GEAR TEETH
r VLYWHEEL

HSLOT
QUADRAN

STBERTNO
OOliDMN

SHlFTIHi
ARM

STARTER GEAR

SHIFTING ROD

BlSARINO

HOUSING

TARTING
MOTOR

SLIDING
STARTING GBAtl

Fig. 254. — Showing Unconventional Starting Pinion Smf ting Arrangement

Used on FIAT Automobiles.

off the main wiring. These are very useful, as no soldering or tap-
ing of joints is required and proper connections are ai^sured. _

An ingenious application of a Westinghouse starting motor to
the FIAT car is outlined at Fig. 254. The motor is contained
in a housing or box attached to the crank case. foot and is connected
to the flywheel through reduction gearing. A sliding pinion on the
electric motor operated shaft is adapted to engage with teeth cut

414 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

Polnis "

Closed

in the circumference of the flyyrheel. The motor is started by a
switch attached to the rear end of the motor housing, this switch
is operated by a lever engaging with a fork attached to the long
shaft shown in illustration. This type of control is distinct from
others in use as it is operated by the change speed lever, so it is

impossible to start the
motor when transmis-
sion gears are in mesh.
The gear shift lever is
carried over into an ad-
ditional slot in the H
plate, it of course be-
ing impossible to oper-
ate the change speed
gears as long as the
shift lever is in the
starting slot. The gen-
e r a t o r is suspended
from, a bracket at-
tached to one of the
frame ' cross members
and is driven by means
of a silent chain from
a sprocket attached to
a flywheel. The gener-
ator supporting bracket
is provided with a sim-
ple means of adjust-
ment to take care of the
chain stretch. The
generator mounting is not shown in the illustration.

The Kemco Pan — Generator System. — Considerable difficulty
has been experienced by motorists owning old-model cars and de-
siring to fit electric-lighting systems on account of no provision hav-
ing been made by the makers of the car for installing or driving
a suitable generator of electricity. A combined fan and dynamo
which is novel in construction is shown at Fig. 256, A. In this

^^ ^ ^^

f^/frh-

Open

Fig. 255. — ^Vlew Showing Operation of West-
inghouse Automatic Cutout.

Kemco Combined Fan-Dynamo 415

:a I — <^"

l>n

^S.

Fig. 256. — Showtng Metbod of trtllizlng the Kemco Combined Fan a
Dynamo.

416 Starting, Lighting and Igmtian Systems

the rotary member of the generator is provided witli a series of
fan blades and is intended to replace the cooling fan usually sup-
plied on most cars, whether air or water cooled. The dynamo por-
tion is very compact and very little of the efficiency of the cooling
fan is sacrificed to obtain the advantages incidental to electric light-
ing. The generator is so arranged that it may be driven by the
fan belt in just the same manner as the fan originally supplied

Fig. 267.— Slettiod of HutaUing; tbe E«mco StartluB Motor.

with the ear. A wiring diagram showing the method of installing
the various components comprising the Kemco lighting system is
presented at B, while the appearance and method of mounting the
generator are shown in the drawing above it.

The application of the Kemco Starting Motor to a ear that

was not designed initially for a self-starting system is shown at

Pig. 257. This motor takes current from the storage battery in a

■•tional way, the battery being kept charged by the Kemco

lerator. The application is extremely simple, the motor

Kemco Starting System

417

being geared down by integral reduction gearing and a suitable
clutch provides for its connections to the crankshaft. The start-
ing unit is carried by simple bracket members attached to the
spring horns.

The cranking motor is designed to fit on the front of the car,
replacing the hand crank, and to duplicate the action of hand
cranking. When the switch button is pressed the same starting
clutch as would have bee*n employed with a hand crank is slipped
into engagement with the crankshaft and the motor is spun until
it fires. When the engine starts under its own power the starting
clutch is automatically thrown out in the same manner that the
hand crank is thrown out of engagement when the engine starts.

OCNEBATCn

AMMETTfc

VOLTMCTEB

CUT-Oin

ill

MOTOB

awiTCM

.Vi

ftATTEBY

f
^■P^

LaMM

Fig. 258. — ^The Hartford Starting and Lighting System.

The system works at 6 volts and should be installed in connection
with a 100-ampere hour storage battery. The starter is made in
two different sizes so that all classes of cars are covered. The gear
ratio between the armature of the cranking motor and the crank-
shaft is 9.5 to 1.

Some of the special electrical features in connection with this
machine are particularly its automatic action in engaging to the
crankshaft by means of a magnetic control when the starting but-
ton is depressed. The release is altogether independent from the
solenoid coil which engages the cranking motor with the crankshaft,
being due, as explained, to the declutching of the cranking motor.
The starter is controlled by the car operator by a button depressed
>y the foot. It can be applied to practically any make of car by

418 Starting^ Lighting and Ignition Systems

Fig. 259. — n. B. L. One Unit Starting System In WMch Oomblnatlon
Motor-tJenerator Replaces the Engine FlyvlieeL

Hartford Starting System 419

means of universal fittings which attach across the front of the
frame and are adjustable in every possible way so as to fit the car
properly. With this arrangement no drilling or machine work is
necessary. In connection with the new cranking motor there is
also brought out a positive drive for the Kemco fan generator.
This gives an improved two-unit starting and lighting system with
which a car can be completely electrically equipped. The overall
dimensions of the cranking motor are 9 by 7 inches. Its weight
is approximately 3 pounds and since the weight of the generator
is 11 pounds, the two principal units total less than 50 pounds.

A special two-unit electric starting and lighting system for
Ford cars has also been brought out, operating on the same prin-
ciple as the larger one but adapted especially for the Ford.

Hartford Starting System. — The wiring diagram at Fig. 258
shows clearly the method of connecting the various appliances
forming part of the Hartford starting and lighting system. This
is a 12 volt, two wire starting system, with a connection so the
lamps receive their current from the battery on the three wire sys-
tem. The two terminals of the generator are connected to the stor-
age battery in the usual way, one directly to a terminal, the other
through the automatic cutout. When the knife-switch is closed, the'
battery current flows through the motor windings and turns the
engine crankshaft. The connections are so clearly shown that
further description is unnecessary. The speed of the generator
armature is governed by the centrifugal governor, which is de*
signed to keep it at 1200 revolutions per minute. The lighting
switch is of the selective barrel type, having three positions of the
handle, one of which will give the head and rear lamps, the inter*
mediate position lighting the side and fear, while the last position
sends the current through all the lamps. This switch is not shown
in the diagram.

U. S. L.-Jeflfery System. — ^The complete starting system shown
at B, Fig. 259 used on 1913 and 1914 Jeffery cars, is one in which
the motor-generator replaces the gasoline engine flywheel. Tfllis
means that it is directly connected to the motor crankshaft and
does not employ any reduction gearing of any form. The various
members comprising the starting system are indicated in hea'

420 Starting^ Lighting and Ignition Systems

Jeffery-U. S. L. System 421

black lines, whUe the rest of the chassis is shown in light black
lines. The system is simple and easily understood. An automatic
switch which changes the electric machine into a generator for
charging the storage battery when the gasoline engine is running
and the starting button is in its released position is one of the im-
portant parts. The regulator which makes the rate of charging
the battery the same at all engine speeds is placed on the dash.
The simple operation of depressing the starting button when the
gasoline engine is not turning changes the flywheel generator inta
an electric motor that draws current from the twenty-four volt
storage battery and which rotates the motor crankshaft. A Jeflfery
motor, with unit motor-generator replacing the flywheel, is shown
at A, Fig. 259, while the complete system in its relation to the
other parts of the motor car chassis are shown at Fig. 260.

CHAPTER VI

STABTING SYSTEM FAULTS AND THEIR SYSTEMATIC LOCATION

Indications of Trouble in Gray & Davis Systems — ^Faults in Motors and
Generators — Commutator Faults — ^Fitting Brushes — ^Faults in Wiring —
Care of Lamps and Storage Battery — ^Delco System Troubles — Testing
for Defective Windings — Defects in Dyneto Systems — ^Troubles in Bosch-
Bushmore System — Remy System Faults.

This portion of the treatise is intended primarily for the me-
chanic who may be confronted with more or less complex problems
in caring for and repairing the electrical system, though the in-
structions given are sufficiently complete and so simply expressed
that the motorist can avail himself of them. The mechanic who has
had experience on electrical apparatus has invented methods
whereby he checks or tests various parts of the apparatus, but
quite often these checks or tests are not infallible. It is the aim
of this chapter to point out to the mechanic the most practical
manner of making reliable tests. The importance of searching for
trouble in a systematic manner cannot be too strongly emphasized.
The expert always follows a definite course of procedure in locating
derangements, the amateur works in a haphazard manner and sel-
dom accomplishes anything. One finds trouble by a process of
search and elimination, the other finds it by good fortune if the
fates are kind.

Locating Troubles in Gray & Davis System. — In event of trou-
ble with the Gray & Davis lighting system, the makers recommend
a careful study of the symptoms, which wiU usually provide a
guide to find the component at fault. The indicator on the dash
shows positively any failure of the generator or any break in the
wiring. If the indicator does not indicate ** charge'' when the en-
gine is speeded up but shows ** discharge" when lights are turned
on and the engine at rest, the dynamo or current regulator is not

422

Starting System Faults 423

working properly. A commoD trouble is the dynamo brashes not
sliding freely in their holders. If the dynamo is driven by friction
belt this may be too loose to drive the dynamo at proper speed.
If the indicator does not indicate "charge" with the engine speeded
up and does not indicate "discharge" with the lights on and the
engine at rest, one should look for an open circuit or loose con-
nection in the battery wiring or for corrosion or looseness in the

Tig. 2S1. — 01ialin«rs Engine Sbowing Locatton of Qny te DatIs Starting
Motor, GeneiatOT and Cutout Belay.

storage battery terminals. Sometimes the dynamo terminals may
have loosened and imperfect contact exist at this point. Should the
indicator show "discharge" with the lights turned oflE and engine
at rest (providing that the indicator pointer is not bent), the in-
sulation on lamp wires may be injured, this permitting contact with
the frame, causing a short circuit. If the indicator indicates
"charge" with the engine at rest, it is a positive indication that the
pointer is bent.

'i24 Starting J Lighting and Ignition Systems

If the charge indications are below normal with the engine run-
ning, it may be on account of slipping of the driving belt if the
dynamo is driven in that manner, or because of poor adjustment of
the centrifugal governor, if that type of dynamo is used. If the
ammeter ** discharge" indications are above normal it is a sign
that the lamp load is excessive or one of the lamp wires is in con-
tact with the frame. "When the indicator pointer jerks from one
reading to another with engine running at constant speed on the
discharge scale, it means either a short circuit in the system or a
loose terminal. If trouble is experienced from fuses burning out
repeatedly, it is a sign that the lamp wires are in contact with the
frame at some point or that one of the lamps is defective because
of a short circuited filament. If the engine cranking speed is very
low and this is not due to the engine being stiff, such as would be
the case in cold weather or after the engine has been overhauled
and bearings tightened, it may be considered a positive indication
that the storage battery is almost discharged or that it is defective
in some way. If the starting motor does not rotate; the battery
may be .discharged, the starting switch may not be making good
contact or a motor brush may not make good contact with the com-
mutator. There may be an open circuit in the battery wiring to
the motor, or there may be a poor circuit or contact because of cor-
roded battery terminals. If the starting motor rotates but does
not crank the engine, it is a sign that the overrunning clutch does
not work properly or that the starter pinion is not properly meshed
with the flywheel gear.

If the lamps will not light but the starter cranks the engine,
this shows that the storage battery is in proper condition and that
the trouble is due to burned out or broken lamp filament or de-
fective lamp fuses. If the lamps burn brightly but fail to illumi-
nate the road sufiiciently, the bulbs may be out of focus in respect
to the parabolic reflector of the lamp or the lamp supports may be
bent in such a way that the rays of light may be directed too far
upwards. If the lamps burn dimly or not at all and it is difficult
to crank the engine with the starting motor, this means a .weak or
discharged storage battery. In addition to this, the lamps may be
4d and have blackened insides, the system might be slightly short

Starting System Faults 425

circuited, or considerable resistance may be present, due to loose or
dirty connections. If the lamps blacken or burn out quickly they
are not of the proper quality if they are six volt lamps, and not of
the proper voltage if other than six volt lamps. There is one ex-
ception to this rule, and that is the bulbs of the tail lamp and dash
light, which are three volt lamps when these two are wired together
in series. Burning out of the lamps may be caused by the regula-
tor not working properly, and if this is the case the lamps will
burn out at high engine speed. If the lamps flicker and the am-
meter or indicator needle is unsteady, look for loose connections in
the light wires, loose connections between battery and dynamo,
loose contact at a lamp connector or lamp bulb, poor contact be-
tween fuses and fuse clips, or an exposed wire touching the frame
intermittently.

If one suspects that the battery is discharged, its condition may
be readily determined by using the test lamp, shown at C, Fig.
201. The test lamp may also be used for locating short circuits
or open circuits. It is well to bear in mind that the lead terminals
of the battery should be scraped clean and bright at the point where
the test lamp wires bear in order to insure a good clean contact.
If the test lamp burns brightly it shows that there is current in
the storage battery. To locate a short circuit the fuses are re-
moved from the rear of the switch and the wire is disconnected
from the negative battery terminal. Connect one of the test lamp
terminals to the free battery terminal and touch the other test lamp
wire to the frame of the car. The test lamp should light if good
contact is made, this indicating that the positive battery terminal is
properly connected to the ground. Keep one test lamp wire in
contact with the negative terminal and touch the other wire to the
end of the battery wire just disconnected. If the test lamp lights
it shows that a conductor or wire connected to the battery, lamps,
horn or starting motor is in contact with or grounded to the frame
of the car.

Any wires having injured insulation should be wrapped with
electrical tape to prevent metallic contact between the conductor
and the frame. Open circuits are best indicated by feeling of the
wires where they fasten to the terminals to make sure that pr '

426 Starting y Lighting and Ignition Systems

tive contact is made and that the terminal binding nuts are not
loose. Short circuits may also be located if no test lamp is avail-
able by following the various wires, and if any of these are found in
contact with the frame it is a wise precaution to pull them away
and to wrap the section that was in contact with the frame thor-
oughly with insulating tape. If one lamp flickers and the rest
burn brightly, look for a poor connection between the lamp and the
lamp connector, a loose terminal at the juliction switch or a defec-
tive fuse. If all lamps flicker, look for loose connections in wiring
between battery and junction switch. When lamp bulbs have been
renewed in head lights it is sometimes necessary to refocus the
lamps. Head lights should not exceed 15 candle power, and should
always be of the high efiiciency filament type. Cheap carbon fila-
ment lamps will not only consume undue current but will not prove
enduring. Tungsten filament lamps are best.

Faults in Motors and Generators. — While every effort has been
made by the manufacturers of electric starting and lighting sys-
tems to have the various units function as nearly automatically as
possible, it will be evident that some attention will be needed by
the various units. The generator should be looked over from time
to time and should any carbon dust be worn from the brushes by
the commutator and deposited in the lower part of the casing it
should be blown out with compressed air. It is stated that an ac-
cumulation of this dust may result in a ground to the generator
case or produce a short circuit between the brush carrier and case.
If the commutator is blackened or rough it must be smoothed down
with fine sandpaper while the armature is rotating. Never use
emery cloth for this purpose. After smoothing down the commu-
tator remove all particles of metal which may bridge across be-
tween the copper segments. The insulating material between the
commutator segments should not be higher than the surfaces of
the segment, and if any of it projects it must be filed down slightly
lower than the copper pieces by using a small file as shown at
Fig. 264.

The brushes are the part of the generator that demand the most
attention and to which most of the troubles in devices of this kind
are due. They should be examined to see that they are in perfect

Faults in Motors and Generators

Tig. 262. — Parts of Nortb East Uotor-Ctenerfttor Field ABsembly.

contact frith the commutator and that they do not stick in the
brush holders. Any dirt or grease on the brush assembly should
be removed. One of the most fertile causes of poor brush contact
with the commutator is on account of insufBcient spring tension.
"When examining the brushes care should be taken to see that the

428 Starting^ Lighting and Ignition Systems

Ftg. 263. — ComponentB of Nortli Eiist Motor-Ofluerator Aimatnie Assembly.

are maintained positively in contact with the copper segments.
Care should be taken not to have the spring pressure too great, as
this would produce rapid depreciation of the brushes and beating

Care of Motors and Generators

429

of the commutator. Brushes that have worn down till they are
short must be replaced with new ones. "When replacing brushes
be sure that they fit the commutator surface exactly over the whole
area of the end of the brush, and in all cases use brushes for re-
placement furnished by the maker of the generator. In some gen-
erators, shunt connections, which are called ** pigtails,'' are used for
connecting the brushes. If the new brushes furnished by the fac-

Starfinq Groove m Mica
With 3-Cornered rile

Comtnuftrfor

Slotting Mica with
Piece of Hacksaw Blade

Segfrterrf^ ••%

fffica ^fnenis"u^ /Mica

jjnnnjiteftx>t

RISHT WAY C WMN6 WAY

tficamusf be cirf- away Mica must /rot be ieff^

chan between s^menfs WiHfafhmec/genexf

iosegntenis

Sloffincf Mica Slo+tlng Mica

Y'Paper ^
Sfnp

Sand in
Commutafor

Fig. 264. — Methods of Grooving Insulation Between Oommutator Segments
at A and B and Bight and Wrong Way of Slotting the Mica at C.
Proper Method of Sanding Commutator Outlined at D.

tory have these connections attached care should be taken to make
the connection exactly the same as on the old brushes.

It is imperative that the commutator be kept clean, as any oil or
grease on the segments will collect carbon dust and produce short
ircuiting. The brush holders should be entirely insulated from
the carrying case, and if any of the insulating bushings, washers
or plates are found defective they must be replaced with new ones.
Should the battery or generator be disconnected for any reason^
do not operate engine again until they are connected. Never "

430 Starting, lAghting and Ignition Systems

c generator unless connected to the battery. With the engine run-
ning and lamps burning, if the amperemeter hand stays at zero it
indicates that the generator is producing exactly the same amount
of current as the lamps are consuming. If the hand is on the dis-
charge side of zero it means that the current-consuming units are
burning more than the generator is producing. If the pointer is on

brush

Sandpaper
Strip

Brush

Sandpaper
Strip

Ri'ght Way.

Wrong Way.

brush

■Sandpaper
Strip

Brush

Sandpaper
Strip

Right Way. Wrong Way.

Sanding Brusvies.

Fig. 265. — niustration Showing Bight and Wrong Way of Sandpapering

Brushes.

the charging side of the. scale it shows that the generator is pro-
ducing more current than is being used by the lamps.

The starting motor is subject to the same electrical troubles as
the generator is. These are grounds, short circuits, brush and com-
mutator troubles. Defects in either the motor or generator drive
are of a purely mechanical nature and can be easily located by any
competent repairman. The centrifugal governor used on many

Faults in Wiring

431

generators is not apt to give any trouble unless some of the parts
fail or the action heeomea clogged with oil and grease. If the
springs tending to return the weights are broken or become weak-
ened the generator will not deliver the proper amount of current
because the drive will not be positive. Any accumulation of oil
that will interfere with proper frietional adhesion between the
clutch parts where a
governor is employed
will also result in fail-
ure to drive.

Faults in Wiring. —
In the two wire sys-
tem every wire, con-
nector and socket must
be insulated from the
car and should not be
in metallic contact at
any point except at the
terminal. It is im-
perative tliat all wires
be insulated from each
other and the car
frame except at points
where permanent con-
nections are made. All
connections should be
soldered to insure posi-
tive contact and se-
curely wrapped with

insulating tape. The wires must be held securely by means o£
cleats of insulating material and must be mounted in such a way
that there is no possibility of sharp metal corners or edges wear-
ing through the insulation and causing grounds or short circuits.
All wiring should be protected from the rotting action of grease,
oil and water, and when the wiring is run where these substances
are apt to accumulate, the regular insulation should be supple-
mented by a conduit of insulating material such &3 circular loom r

Tig. 266. — Diagrams Defining Difference Be-
tween Sliort Circuit at A and Open Circuit

432 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

Faults in Wiring 438

fiber tubing, or armored cable should be used. All wires should be
so installed that there is no danger of interference between them
and operating rods and levers. The abrasion of these members will
wear through the insulation, and result in short circuits. Brass or
copper terminal connections should be used at all points and no
connection should be made by winding the strands of wire around
the terminal. One or more of the strands may bridge across the
terminal or to some metal part and cause a short circuit or ground.
Special care should be taken with the connections in the lamps and
other points. By the term '* short circuit" electricians mean that
two wires of opposite polarity are in metallic contact. Under such
conditions the storage battery will be discharging and there will
be no lights at the lamps. A short circuit may occur at any point
in the wiring system, but is usually found at terminals that have
been carelessly made or by worn insulation on wires.

The connections in electric wiring should be soldered. The un-
soldered connection may work as good as a soldered connection at
the time of being made, but the resistance always increases. Do
not use acid when soldering electrical apparatus or wiring as the
acid is an electrical conductor and destroys insulation. It is much
better to use a non-corrosive soldering paste. Do not use friction
tape on high tension wiring or on other wiring where the grease
or oil can get to it. It is much better to use linen tape and shellac.
Friction tape will not insulate ignition current and will not hold
when oily.

A short circuit (Fig. 266, A) will be indicated by the position
of the amperemeter pointer. Always note the position of the index
hand of that instrument when the car is stopped. With the engine
at a standstill and no lamps burning the hand should point to zero.
If it does not the amperemeter is either out of calibration or there is
a leak of current from the battery at some point in the wiring. To
ascertain if the amperemeter is correct, uncouple one of the battery
terminals of the Jighting system. Obviously, if the hand swings to
zero, the trouble is leakage of current, which should be immediately
corrected after the trouble is located. ' If the index does not point
to zero when the battery terminal is disconnected, the instrument is
out of calibration, and while this does not affect the operation '"*

934 Starting^ Lighting and Ignition Systems

. V

7 \

Amperemeter Indications 435

the system it should be taken into account when reading the am-
peremeter. If the engine backfires when the ignition is interrupted
and it makes one or two revolutions in the reverse direction, the
amperemeter pointer may be found at the extreme of the scale on
the discharge side. This is caused by the circuit breaker contact
being held closed and means a short circuit of the battery through
the generator winding. This must be corrected at once by mo-
mentarily disconnecting one of the generator wires or starting the
engine. If the wires are removed from the generator for any rea-
son make sure that they are connected to the same terminals as
they were originally. If the wires are reversed the amperemeter
will indicate a dead short circuit by swinging to the extreme on
the discharge side of the scale when the engine is started, and if this,
defective condition is not corrected the battery will be soon dis-
charged. In case of a short circuit examine all of the wires con-
nected to the battery terminals and to the lighting switch. Make-
sure that the insulation is perfect and that it has not been cut
through at any point. Whenever any wires are removed from any
of the units always mark the terminals and the wire so that they
will be replaced exactly as they were originally. If a short circuit
exists when all the switches are opened, if one takes oflE a battery
terminal and makes and breaks contact between the wire and that-
member a small spark will be in evidence. If no sparking occurs,
connect up the terminal to the battery and then with the engine
at a standstill close the switches to the lighting circuit one at a
time and watch the amperemeter closely as each switch makes con-
tact. If the pointer does not move far from zero it shows that the
current consumption is normal ; if, however, the pointer swings to-
the extreme of the discharge scale it is evident that a short circuit
exists somewhere in the circuit just brought into action. All the
circuits can be tried in this manner one at a time. If the ampere-
meter indicates only a normal amount of current consumption for
the various lighting circuits it is apparent that no further search
is necessary. If, however, the needle indicates a short circuit on
one or more of the switch positions, examine the wires carefully
for the circuits at fault, and if the trouble does not exist there it
may be located in the lamp socket, the connector or the bulb itsel"^

436 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

In case one or more lamps fail to bum the trouble is due to either
a broken wire or a defective connection at the switch, connectors or
lamp sockets or a bulb or fuse is burnt out.

Care of Lamps and Storage Battery. — The following instruc-
tions relative to the care of the lamps and storage battery of the,
Auto-Lite system are taken from an instruction book prepared by
this company and apply to similar components of all systems.
Complete directions for the care and charging of storage batteries
are given in the preceding chapter, but at the same time a review
of the important points to keep in mind in connection with the
maintenance of the batteries used in lighting and starting systems
will prove of value to the motorist or repairman who does not
desire to go thoroughly into the subject of storage battery charging
or maintenance.

To clean head and side lamp reflectors, remove from lamp body
and carefully blow out any dust which may have collected on the
reflecting surfaces. Then dip a small piece of absorbent cotton in
alcohol and lightly wipe over the surface — always from the back
to the front. To focus the lamps, open the swinging front of the
lamp and direct the light upon some smooth vertical surface at a
distance of about ten feet. Loosen the adjusting screw on the slide
at the rear of the reflector, and move the bulb and socket out and
in until all rings disappear in the illuminated area. Then tighten
down the adjusting screw and close the lamp. Any further adjust-
ment of the lamp must be made by bending the arms of the lamp
bracket with a heavy wrench until the light from each lamp strikes
the road at the point desired.

Do not connect additional apparatus, such as electrical horns,
cigar lighters, etc., to the system without taking the matter up with
the factory. The surplus capacity of the system is large, btit there
is a limit to the amount of current which the generator can pro-
duce. Use the same judgment and reason in the operation of the
electric lights on a car as you do those in your home or garage.
When a car is running it is not necessary to burn all the lights, the
two heads and the tail are all that are required or that are of any
service. When the car is standing at night, use the side and tail
lights only. When push type connectors are used, if halves of con-

Starting System Troubles

487

438 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

nectors are loose when pushed together, the contact will be poor.
Spread the connector posts slightly so that they will slide in their
sockets snugly. If Ediswan type are used, and plunger springs in
connector do not operate, replace the connector with a perfect one.

The storage battery is made up of several hard rubber cells or
containers for the active plates and liquid electrolyte. The whole
is surrounded by a wood casing for mechanical protection and ease
in handling. Each individual cell is provided with a screw cap
for inspection and the addition of electrolyte or distilled water
when necessary (See Fig. 73 and Fig. 74). The electrolyte
must at all times cover the tops of the plates at least one-quarter
inch. InsufiScient electrolyte will result in warped or buckled
plates, and an accumulation of sediment at the bottom of the cells.
The battery will be ruined in a short time if the tops of the plates
are not kept covered. Each cell must be inspected at least once
every week in summer and once every two weeks in winter. All
screw caps must be removed and distilled water added to each cell
to make up for the natural evaporation. If distilled water cannot
be had use clean rain water which has not come in contact with
metal or, cement.

Never add acid to the cells of the battery. If part or all of the
electrolyte has been lost through accidental spilling or leakage get
full instructions and advice from the maker. An hydrometer, ar-
ranged with a rubber bulb to draw a portion of the electrolyte
from each cell, furnishes the best indication of the condition of the
battery. The hydrometer shows the specific gravity of the elec-
trolyte, which for a fully charged cell should be 1280 on a specific
gravity scale. If the car is out of service for a considerable length
of time, as when laid up for the winter, it is necessary to charge
the battery at regular intervals. This may be done by running the
engine at a car speed of twenty miles per hour for at least one
hour every two weeks. If the car is to be stored, and it is not con-
venient to charge as above, the battery should be removed from
the car and placed in a reliable garage to be properly taken care of.

If your battery is arranged with terminal posts for the wiring
connections these must be examined occasionally to see that they
are clean and free from sulphate. The thorough application of a
Tmall amount of vaseline at the metal connections to the battery

Starting System Troubles

439

jOfn<iiJiS!a <^9u6o^.

.5^

■^^

:^^
<§

i5.-^

o
o

o
•d

i-i ^

asz5

4a
QQ

•3
Q

CO
iH

.d
H

440 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

posts will prevent sulphating and consequent corrosion and poor
electrical contact at these points. If the electrolyte leaks from the
joints, bottom, or wood sides of the battery case, one or more of
the hard rubber cells are cracked or broken. The battery must be
returned to the factory for repairs or replacement. The metal bat-
tery box must be thoroughly wiped out with a cloth saturated with
ammonia to neutralize the acid and prevent corrosion. The top
of the battery must be kept clean and dry to prevent a leakage of
current between the terminals. See that the battery is held se-
curely in its metal box or other container. If necessary pack
tightly with waste to prevent the battery shaking about from jolt-
ing of the car. Tools, other metal articles, or anything of value
should not be placed near the battery as the acid fumes will cor-
rode and destroy metal, cloth and like material. Make certain that
the battery terminals cannot touch the cover of the metal battery
box. A thin sheet of wood fiber fitted inside the cover of the bat-
tery box will prevent short circuits or grounds from this cause.
It must be remembered that the efficiency of any storage battery
decreases with drop in temperature and it is only about 50 per cent,
efficient at zero temperature. For this reason the demand for cur-
rent should be kept as low as possible in cold weather and lamps
turned off when not needed.

The user of any electrical starting and lighting system will
avoid trouble and expense by the observation of the following
instructions :

Don't replace worn-out brushes with any others than those sup-
plied by the manufacturer.

Don't put oil or grease on the commutator of the generator or
motor. No lubrication is wanted there.

Don't turn the hose on the generator or motor when washing
your car.

Don't tighten up on the silent chain drive unless the slack be-
comes excessive from stretching. The chain must be run with a
reasonable amount of slack to prevent noise and wear.

Don't fail to lubricate the silent chain drive at frequent inter-
•'sls. Noise will be eliminated and wear reduced. Keep the chain
\d sprockets clean, and free from dirt and gravel.

Starting System Troubles

441

O
4*

43
&

3
»

o
O

oo
d
tib

442 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

Don't run your car, if for any reason the battery is discon-
nected from the circuit, unless you have disconnected the chain
driving the generator, or the generator itself has been removed.

Don't attempt to propel car. with starter. Such ** stunts'' are
interesting, but expensive. Gasoline is for that purpose.

Don't attempt to make adjustments of any kind in the circuit
breaker.

Don't fuss with the system when it is operating properly.

Hints For Locating Delco Trouble.— 1. If starter, lights and
horn all fail, the trouble is in the storage battery or its connections,
such as a loose or corroded connection or a broken battery jar.
2. If the lights, horn and ignition are all 0. K., but the starter
fails to crank the trouble is in the motor generator, such as dirt or
grease on the motor commutator, or the motor brush not dropping
on the commutator. 3. If the starter fails to crank or cranks very
slowly, and the lights go out or get very dim while cranking, it
indicates a loose or corroded connection on the storage battery, or
a nearly depleted storage battery. 4. If the motor fires properly on
the ''M'' button, but not on the **B'' button, the trouble must be in
the wiring between the dry cells or the wires leading from the dry
cells to the combination switch, or depleted dry cells. If the igni-
tion works 0. K. on the **B'' button and not on the ''M" button,
the trouble must be in the leads running from the storage battery
to the motor generator, or the lead running from the rear terminal
on the generator to the combination switch, or in the storage battery
itself, or its connection to the frame of the car. 5. If both systems
of ignition fail, and the supply of current from both the storage
battery and dry cells is 0. K., the trouble must be in the coil,
resistance unit, timer contacts or condenser. This is apparent from
the fact that these work in the same capacity for each system of
ignition.

Never run the car with the storage battery disconnected, or
while it is off the car. Very serious damage to the motor-generator
may result from such action.

Never remove any electrical apparatus from the car or make

any adjustments without first disconnecting the storage battery.

^his can be done most conveniently by removing the ground con-

Troubles in Delco System

443

nection. Remember, a loose, corroded or dirty connection on the
battery can put both starting and lighting systems out of commis-

sion.

The description of the special volt-ammeter shown at Pig. 269,
and the methods of using it in looking for derangements in the
Delco-motor generator are reproduced from the 1916 Delco-Buick
instruction bbok to insure accuracy in describing these tests. Too

15V

-rr

/^voT£0 yfe/rrtc/kL Coiu
Carrying FtiNTCR

Fig. 269. — ^Interior Wiring Arrangement of Special Volt-Ammeter, an
Important Adjunct to the Testing Equipment of the Delco System
Bepairman.

often the mechanic is handicapped by not having the proper tools
to work with. No mechanic would attempt to overhaul an engine
with the tools included in the car equipment, neither should he
expect to make all of the practical tests on the electrical system
without some additional equipment.

A voltmeter and an ammeter or a combination volt-ammeter
is the one most important instrument that the mechanic can use
in this work, and in order to explain the action of such a t

444 .Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

(Fig. 269) is included. This shows the internal circuits of such a
meter with full scale readings of 30 Ampere, 3 Ampere, 15 Volts.
The meter proper consists of a permanent magnet *'M'' between
the poles of which is mounted a movable coil '*K'' which carries
the pointer. This part of the meter is very sensitive and carries
only a small amount of current. In the average meter with the
scale readings as given the current in the different parts would
be approximately as follows: With the meter connected to give
a full scale reading of 30 amperes (connect the lines to the terminal
marked -f- 8<nd to the one marked **30-A'') the current would
divide at the -f- terminal, the main part of which flows to the
terminal marked **30-A" 29%o amperes flowing in this circuit
and %o ampere flowing through the coil to terminal 3-A through
the shunt to 30-A terminal. The %o ampere through the movable
coil is the amount required to give a full scale reading of the
pointer.

When the 3 ampere scale is used the current divides at the -f-
terminal and 2%o aniperes flows through both shunts to 3-A ter-
minal and %o ampere through the coil as before. The difference
in the proportions of the total current that flows through each
circuit from the amount that flows through each circuit in the
former case is due to the resistance of the 3-A shunt. When the
instrument is used as a voltmeter connections are made to the posi-
tive terminal and the terminal marked '*15 V and the button must
be pressed. This cuts out the shunts and connects in series the
high resistance. This is a very high resistance and when the full
voltage reading is taken there is %o of an ampere flowing through
the high resistance and the movable coil, which is the same amount
of current that flows in it when it is used as an ammeter and it
gives a full scale deflection.

The important points to remember when using an instrument
of this kind are as follows : 1. Do not test the storage battery with
an ammeter as dry batteries are tested. (This will positively ruin
the meter.) 2. In taking an ammeter reading in the circuit where
the approximate flow of current is not known, always use the
highest scale on the meter and make tho connection where it can
' ^ quickly disconnected in the event of a high reading. 3. If the

Locating Troubles in Delco System

445

meter reads backwards reverse the wires to the meter terminals.
The meter will not be damaged by passing a current through it
in the reverse direction as long as the amount of the current is not
over the capacity of the meter. 4. No damage will be done by
connecting a voltmeter as an ammeter so long as the voltage of
the system is not above the range of the voltmeter, but the am-
meter should not be used as a voltmeter. 5. A high-class instru-
ment of this type will stand a momentary overload of from 200
to 400%. If the user is careful not to make his connections per-

//4^-l^ /,i0^f7W^ Cf^CC¥r /9C ^DC

^ V\/tRC$

^AAf/^ ''''

0 f

,Tisr cmcuiT ^y/res

^^^C /fA^y^X^S '

Fig. 270. — ^Wiring Diagram Showing Methods of Connecting Lamp and

Test Points in Lighting Circuit.

manently until the current is normal, he will very seldom injure
the instrument.

Next to the combination volt-ammeter the most important test-
ing arrangement for the mechanic is a set of test points to use
in connection with the electric light circuit. This is very easily
made as shown at Fig. 270 by tapping one wire of an ordinary-
extension lamp, splicing the wires on to which are attached suit-
able points with insulated handles in order that these may be
haiidled with no danger of electrical shock. With a set of test
points as described the lamp will bum when the test points are
together or when there is an electrical connection between
points. This will give more satisfactory results for testir

446 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

grounds, leaks or open connections than will a bell or buzzer used
with dry batteries, as the voltage is higher and it requires a small
amount of current to operate the lamp. With a bell or buzzer, a
ground or open connection may exist, but the resistance is so high
that enough current will not be forced through it by the dry
batteries to operate the bell or buzzer. No harm can be done to
any part of the Delco or other apparatus by tests points as de-
scribed above, when the ordinary carbon or tungsten lamp is used
in testing purposes.

Indications of Delco Generator Troubles. — If there is any
derangement of the interior wiring of the Delco motor-generator
unit, these defects will be made apparent by: 1st, failure to turn
over at uniform speed when starter btitton is pushed down; 2nd,
blackening and burning of the generator commutator or excessive
sparking; 3rd, failure to keep battery charged; 4th, slow crank-
ing, even with a well charged battery; 5th, vibration of cut-out
relay; 6th, excessive heating of generator. If any of the above
indications exist the first step is to go over all connections and
make sure if these are made correctly in accordance with the wir-
ing diagram furnished with the car. Examine the commutator to
see if it has the same appearance at all points on its periphery or
whether some of the segments are burnt more than others. See
if the armature will revolve at a uniform speed when the starter
button is depressed. If the commutator is burnt black on two or
more adjacent segments and it does not revolve uniformly or evenly
when the starter button is pushed down, this Will indicate that
a short circuit exists in one or more of the armature coils which
entirely eliminates the action of the winding, so that the armature
will revolve only for a fraction of a revolution. It will usually
cause the relay to vibrate when the generator is being driven by
the engine. If an amperemeter is used in the circuit, the pointer
of this will swing back and forth at each revolution both when
the engine is turning the generator over and when the current
from the storage battery is employed for the same purpose. While
a short or open circuited winding is an extremely rare occurrence
it may be well to detail the method of testing to see if any grounds
or short circuits exist in the armature winding.

Finding Delco Generator Faults 447

Testing for Defective Windings.— In order to make this test
intelligently it is advisable to use a 110 volt circuit which includes
a 16 candle power carbon filament lamp wired in series and a
pair of test points as previously described. Each end of the wire
is soldered to an insulated contact point composed of a piece of
brass or copper rod having a tapered point attached to an in-
sulating handle of fiber or other non-conductor. The test may be
made with the generator in place on the car, if it is accessibly
placed or the device may be removed from the chassis. If the arma-
ture is in place insulate all brushes from the commutator by plac-
ing sheets of waxed paper between them. Then with the test points
test for a ground from each commutator segment to the frame or
armature shaft as shown at A, Fig. 271. Obviously, if a short cir-
cuit exists between any wire and the ground this will complete the
circuit and cause the lamp to light. Next with the brushes and
commutator bars still insulated as in the first test make a trial for a
''short'' including the armature and generator windings holding one
test point on the segment of the motor commutator and the other
on one of the segments of the generator commutator. The lamp
should not light during this test, if it does it indicates a short
circuit between the two windings. The first test indicates a short
circuit between one of the windings and the metal representing
the ground, in this case the armature core and shaft.

It may be well at this point to outline the difference between
a short circuit and an open circuit. Both of these are clearly
shown at Fig. 266. At A, what is technically known as a short cir-
cuit is depicted. It will be observed here that the insulation is
worn off of one of the wires and that the conductor is rubbing on
the metal frame. The positive terminal of the battery is attached
to the metal frame and the negative terminal of the battery goes
to the current consuming unit, in this case an incandescent lamp.
It will be apparent, that with the bare wire in contact with the
frame that the current will follow the course indicated by the
arrows and will return to the storage battery through the ground
connection with the bare or grounded wire. In this case no cur-
rent can flow through the current consuming unit. Owing to the
low resistance" of the circuit a large amount of current will pa»

448 Starting^ Lighting and Ignition Systems

through and the battery capacity will be quickly depleted. The
same condition may exist in the windings of the generator, and if
a short circuit is present the current produced by the rotation of
the windings will not flow through the .external circuit, but will
take the shortest way to the ground. A complete open circuit, as
indicated at B, permits absolutely no current to reach the lamp.
This is because of a positive break in the conductor, which may be
produced because of a loose connection or a broken wire. When
there is a short circuit, as shown at A, some of the current may
reach the lamp filament and cause it to burn dimly.

The location of a fault in a double-function (two commutator)
armature is more difficult than finding trouble in a single-func-
tion armature, because more things can happen. The method of
testing for grounds and shorts has been described. 'The symptoms
and the troubles they indicate in the windings are summarized
as follows under the heading of the defective conditions:

Shorted Generator Coil. — Charging rate low; meter vibrates
when motoring the generator, or possibly the generator will only
turn for a part of a revolution ; meter vibrates when engine is
running at low speeds-; two or more adjacent commutator bars
bum and blacken; cranking is slower than normal, but if only
one coil is shorted this latter will not be noticed.

Grounded Generator CoU, — This will very seriously aflfect the
cranking, causing it to be slow, and will soon discharge the bat-
tery with practically no charge from the generator; will cause
burning of the commutator bars ; is tested by insulating all brushes
from the commutator and testing with the test points from the
generator commutator to the frame of the machine. If grounded
the test light will bum.

Open Generator Coil. — Charging rate is low; meter vibrates
when motoring the generator, and when running at low speeds,
the same as with the shorted generator coil ; severe sparking at the
generator brushes when the engine is running which causes serious
burning at one commutator bar. This will not affect the cranking.

Grounded Motor Winding. — This will rapidly discharge the
storage battery ; is tested by insulating the motor brushes from thi

Delco System Troubles

449

commutator and test with the test points from the motor commu-
tator to the frame. The light will burn if the winding is grounded*
If the cut-out relay points stick, the generator armature will
continue to revolve even when the engine is stopped. Smooth the
contacts by drawing a piece of very fine emery cloth between them,
and be sure that the pivot bearings are free. This will usually cure

I/O VOUTU AM f^

II 0 YOUr' CIRCUIT

ARMATURE

SHAFT-'

COMMUTATORS

110 VOLT i.AMP»

no VOi-T CIRCUI

Fig. 271. — ^Diagram Showing Method of Testing Armature Winding with

Test Points for Grounds or Short Circuits.

the trouble, although a sticking roller driving clutch at the forward
end of the generator may cause a flow of sufficient current through
the relay to give a similar result. The adjustment of the spring
tension of* the cutout relay should never be made without connect-
ing a volt meter between the proper terminal on the cutout relay
and the ground. Start the engine and gradually increase its speed,

450 Starting J Lighting and Ignition Systems

and if the spring tension is properly set the relay contacts will
dose when the meter indicates seven volts. If the relay does not
close the contact at seven volts, adjust the spring tension, which
may be done by bending the arm at the top to which the spring is
attached, using a small pair of pliers for this operation.

If there is any trouble in the voltage regulator the generator
will not turn when the starter button is pressed, and the gener-
ator will not generate current. To test out the voltage regulator
depress the starter button, and if there is sufficient current in the
battery and no broken wires and the armature does not revolve,
remove the connection to the bottom terminal and voltage regu-
lator and connect it to the terminal above. The armature will
now revolve when the starter button is depressed. In order to
make repairs replace tb<*, regulator tube complete. This can be
checked out in another way. When the engine is running at nor-
mal speed, see if the cutout remains open. If it does this will
indicate a burnt out voltage regulator resistance. If the resistance
is burnt out when the lead connecting with the binding post at the
bottom r.f the tube is moved to the upper connection the cutout
will immediately be drawn closed and the generator will start to
charge the battery. The voltage regulator is not used on all
Delco systems, as the third brush system of regulation is used on
some cars. The voltage regulator system is used on the 1914
Cadillac, as shown in wiring diagram in preceding chapter, and
also in the Cole and Moon cars for the same year. A voltage
regulator is found on the 1914 Hudson Six-54, on the 1914 Oak-
land, Models 43, 48 and 62, on the 1914 Oldsmobile, Model Six-54 ;
the 1915 Oldsmobile Six-55. On the 1915 Buick, Cole, Hudson,
Moon, Patterson, and Oakland cars the third Brush System of
regulation is used, and is practically the system in general use on
1916 cars because it is a simpler system than that usiug the voltage
regulator.

Ammeter Beading When Motoring Generator. — During the mo-
toring of the generator the pole pieces are magnetized by the cur-
rent through the shunt field winding. The armature is magnetized
by the current through the brushes and generator winding on the
armature. It is necessary that current flow through both of these

Delco System Troubles 451

circuits before the armature will revolve. It is a familiar mistake
to think that when current is passing only through the armature
the armature should revolve. The shunt field current can be
easily checked' by disconnecting the shunt field lead from the
generator at the ignition coil terminal. The ammeter in this line
should indicate approximately 1^4 amperes when the ignition button
is pulled out. The ammeter on the combination, switch can be de-
pended upon to determine the amount of current flowing through
the generator winding during this operation. Both the ignition
current and the shunt field current flow through this meter in addi-
tion to the current through the generator armature. The timing
contacts should be open. This will cut off the ignition current and
leave only the armature and shunt field current. Since the shunt
field current is only 1^ amperes the reading of the ammeter will
readily indicate whether or not current is flowing through the
generator armature winding.

Should it be found that the current through both the armature
and the shunt field windings is normal and the armature still does
not revolve the trouble may be caused by either (1) the armature
being tight mechanically, due to either a sticking driving clutch,
trouble in the bearings or foreign particles jammed between the
armature and pole pieces. This can be readily tested by removing
the front end cover of the generator and turning the armature
from the commutator; (2) the shunt field winding or the gener-
ator armature winding may be defective in some manner, such
as shorted, grounded, or connected to the motor winding. Any
one of these would show an abnormal reading of the ammeter in
some position of the armature when the armature is revolved by
hand. If the ammeter vibrates at each revolution of the armature
during the motoring of the generator, and when the engine is run-
ning at low speeds, this is very conclusive proof that the armature
has either a ground, open coil, shorted coil, or is connected to the
motor winding.

If the motor fails to turn the engine when the battery shows
that it is properly charged either by specific gravity or meter
reading turn on the head lights and then operate the starting
lever. If the lights go out, this indicates either a bad cell in ^'

452 Starting^ Lighting and Ignition Systems

storage battery or a poor connection either in the plate connectors
in the battery itself or at either end of the large cable leading
from the battery to the generator. If the light bums brightly,
but the motor makes no effort to turn over the engine, the trouble
may be caused either by poor contact between the motor brushes
and the commutator due to the accumulation of dirt and grease
or improper spring tension against the motor brushes. If either
of these conditions exist, pressing the brushes more firmly against
the commutator will usually result in the armature revolving,
proving that the defects enumerated exist.

Voltmeter Test If Cranking Action is Weak, — This cranking
current is a heavy discharge on the storage battery, the average
car requiring approximately % horse power to perform the crank-
ing operation. Nine-tenths of all cranking failures is due either
to the storage battery or poor connections in the cranking circuit.
The first rush of current from the storage battery during the
cranking operation varies from 200 to 600 amperes, depending upon
the condition of the engine and the storage battery. This is only
a momentary flow of current, but a poor connection prevents this
heavy flow of current and prevents the starter from breaking the
engine loose. This heavy discharge will naturally cause the voltage
of the battery to be decreased, and the amount that it is decreased
depends to a great extent upon the condition of the charge of the
battery. On a storage battery which is chained so that its specific
gravity registers 1200 or more the voltage should not fall below
5 volts.

The voltmeter is the instrument to use to quickly locate the
cause for failure to crank. The starter cannot be expected to
crank the engine when the voltage falls below 3 or 4 volts. There-
fore, a voltmeter should be connected to the heavy terminal on the
rear of the generator and to the ground and the starting pedal
depressed. If the voltage falls below 4 volts the trouble is either
a nearly discharged battery or a poor connection, or possibly a
bad cell in the battery. Any one of these can be quickly located
by taking individual voltmeter readings of the different cells when
the starting pedal is still depressed. If the individual cells show
a normal voltage when the starting pedal is depressed then eaeh

Dyneta System Troubles 458

nnection in the cranking^ circuit should be bridged by the volt-
eter connections. A reading of the voltmeter will indicate the
ifective connection.

Should the voltmeter indicate a normal voltage from the heavy
rminal on the rear of the generator to the ground when the
arting pedal is depressed and still the starting motor makes no
fort to crank the car, trouble must exist within the generator,
ich as the motor brush not coming in contact with the motor
>mmutator or dirt or grease on the commutator preventing elec-
•ical contact. This could also be caused by trouble in the arma-
ire windings, but is very improbable, and can be tested as de-
jribed.

TROUBLES IN DYNETO SYSTEM

f Dyneto WUl Not Start

Do not leave the switch on *' start.'' Turn on lamps, if they
urn brightly, try starting again and watch lamps ; if they do not
rop at all in candle power, it is quite likely that there is an open
ircuit in the starting wires, switch contacts, terminals or brushes.
^e sure that the brushes are not worn out, are free in the holders,
nd that springs are in condition to press them firmly against
ommutator.

If, with switch on ''START,'' lamps drop slightly in candle
>ower, and the Dyneto does not start, the trouble may be due to
30se connections, rough or dirty commutator, brushes worn out
r not well fitted to the commutator, weak brush springs, grounded
r defective armature or field windings.

/ Lamps Burn Very Dimly or Not at All

If lamps bum very dimly or not at all, when switch is moved
0 ''START," the battery is probably discharged or defective.
See battery instructions.

'/ Dyneto Starts But Buns Too Slowly

Look for high resistance in main circuits, too small wire, loose
erminals, bad joints, poor switch contacts, rough commutator,
bort brushes without sufficient spring tension ; also look for weak

454 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

ARtlATUFE

ARM.

sh:fl

SWKH
MARKING

AER/L

U6UTtN6 a/tcun

BATTERY
12 VOLTS

TAIL LIGHT
G6, 7Y.

SIDELIGHT
68, 14 V

HEAP LIGHT

SWITCH

/V\

[TO

OASH LIGHT SIDE LIGHT
G6, 7V. 08, /4V.

HEAD LIGHT
GIG'i, 14 V.

Fig. 272. — ^Diagram Showing Wiring of Dyneto-Entz Starting and liiglit-

ing System.

battery, partially discharged, possibly due to grounds, leaks, un-
necessary use of lights when engine is not running or continuous
cranking when motor will not **pick up" because of poor car-
buretion or ignition.

// Dyneto Starts But Will Not Generate

The trouble will probably be found in an open shunt field
circuit. This circuit may be traced as follows (see Fig. 272) : From
negative pole of battery to post 1 through shunt field on Dyneto

Bosch'Rushmore System Troubles 455

to post 3 S H F on starting switch, through switch to SER F,
post 4 to positive battery. This circuit may be tested out inde-
pendently of the main circuit by removing wire from post 2, so
as to cut out armature circuit, and setting the starting switch on
'* START." If the circuit is complete a bright spark will be made
when wire is removed from post 3. If no spark occurs, look over

all wires and connections, and an open circuit will be found.

If Dyneto Does Not Generate Enough Current

First be sure that the battery is in good condition, and that it
utilizes the current actually delivered to it by the generator. (See
battery instructions.) If battery is all right, go over shunt circuit
as in last paragraph. Be sure that there are no loose connections,
and that the commutator is clean and smooth; that the springs
keep the brushes pressed against the commutator properly. If
an ampere meter is available, connect it to one of the wires leading
to the battery. The amount of current that should be generated
at various speeds is specified above.

Grounds, Short Circuits, Open Circuits in Lamps and Wire

These troubles are quite common when the wiring is poorly
•done. Grounds and short circuits often occur in wires not pro-
tected by suitable conduit and good heavy insulation, especially
when wires pass around sharp corners, over bolt heads, etc.
Grounds are also sometimes found in switches, lamps and con-
nectors.

Open circuits may be due to blown fuses, bad joints, poor wiring,
loose connections. They are also found in connectors and lamp
sockets.

TROUBLES IN BOSCH BUSHMORE SYSTEM

The following instructions regarding the location of trouble in
the Bosch-Rushmore starting and lighting system are taken from
the Marmon instruction book :

1. No Lights Obtainable, Car at Standstill

If lights are obtainable when engine is running, but no lights
are available when the engine is at a standstill, this condition

456 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

indicates that the battery is either in a totally disehai^ed condition,
that the connections to same are loose, or that No. 3 connection
to the control box is not making proper contact, or the fuse be-
tween positive terminals of the battery and ground is blown or
the ammeter shunt is open circnited. If the battery is found
discharged, it must be given a charge from an external source.
If the connections are loose, re-establish the integrity of the joints.
If the fuse is blown, it is necessary to test out the different cir-
cuits with either a bell or test lamp before putting in a new fuse.
The fuse may have been blown because of a short circuit in one
of the circuits and merely replacing the fuse without correcting
the faulty circuit would be of little avail. Never use a piece of
copper wire in place of a fuse. Always have sufficient fuses for
replacement on hand. To determine whether the ammeter shunt
is blown or not place the meter handle in the left hand or voltage
position. If voltage is obtained move the handle to the right hand
position, which is the ampere position. Place the left hand light-
ing switch handle in No. 1 position; if the shunt is burnt out
there will be a violent fluctuation to the left. If this condition
exists it will necessitate removing the cover of the control box,
uncoupling the two wires that are connected to the connections
on the meter and then remove the screws that hold the meter in
position. It is necessary to test the wiring thoroughly to locate
a ground which might exist and which may have caused the am-
meter shunt to blow out. After the ground is located and re-
moved the two wires that were previously connected to the engine
can be joined together by means of a small bolt, as this will allow
the (System to be used while the meter is being repaired.

2. No Lights Obtainable Under Any Conditions.

This condition could be caused by any of the foregoing defects,
with the addition of No. 1 and No. 2 cables (see Fig. 234) making
poor connections either at the dynamo or control box. When
making up or replacing terminals used on the cables, use the
special wrench supplied with these outfits. It is not necessary to
make these tight, as it is only required to tighten the nuts until
1 more play can be felt by pushing the wire in and out of the nut.

Bosch'Rtishmore System Troubles 457

3. Individual Circuits.

Bulb filament burnt out ; bulb base not making proper contact ;
cables supplying this circuit loose ; the remedy for this is obvious.

4. Lights Flickering.

Primarily due to either improper brush contacts, dirty commur
tator, or loose No. 1 or No. 2 leads, which results in the automatic
relay openings and closing with great rapidity. In order to elim-
inate this, it is necessary to loosen the top screw of end cover of
dynamo and turn cover to the left, as far as it will go. This will
expose brush holders and commutator. Brushes can be removed
by lifting up springs and pushing them to one side. Remove
whatever dirt may be on the brushes, in order that they may have
a free sliding fit in the brush holders. The sticking of the brushes
may have caused the commutators to have become roughened. This
can be cleaned by means of fine sandpaper, not emery paper.
Never attempt to use other brushes than those supplied by the
Bosch Company. If the flickering is intermittent, it is caused
by loose connections on the battery side of the system.

5. Lights Dim {Individual Circuit).

Poor lamp contact or poor cable contact ; remedy obvious.

6. All Lights Dim (Car Standing JStill).

Battery partially discharged ; partial ground or short circuit.
First determine the condition of the battery as cited under ''bat-
tery''heading. If this is found ix) be O. K., test each individual
circuit for ground. This can be done by disconnecting them all
at the c(mtrol box, and replacing them (me by one, and note at
which circuit the lights dim. This will be the circuit that the
trouble exists on, and the cable terminals and cable itself should
be thoroughly examined.

7. Lights Dim (Engine Running) .

Dynamo not operating with a partially discharged battery.
Dynamo and battery condition 0. K. with a heavy ground or short
circuit on system; starting switch not having returned to the off
position. To remedy, proceed as under hectding ''no lights ob-
tainable.'*

458 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

8. Dynamo Not Cutting In Until High Speed Is Beached.

If the dynamo should not cut in until the engine is raced, and
after it once cuts in it operates satisfactorily even down to low
car speeds, this is an indication that the dynamo brushes are not
making proper contact, or that the commutator is roughened and
dirty. To remedy, proceed as under ** lights flickering."

9. Adjustment of Automatic Belay.

Before proceeding with the method of adjusting and regulat-
ing the automatic relay or cutout, and the voltage regulator or
controller, it should be borne in mind that these parts are cor-
rectly set and adjusted before leaving the factory, and no attempt
should be made to alter same, unless you are certain that condi-
tions can be bettered or corrected by doing so. These parts will
operate over great lengths of time with absolutely no attention,
and they should be touched only when you are positive that the
(difficulty lies there.

This relay is for the purpose of closing the dynamo circuit on
to the battery when the dynamo voltages are correct. If it is
necessary to alter this cutting-in point, it is done by slackening
off the hexagon-headed nut at the buttom of the left-hand relay.
To cause it to cut in at a higher voltage, this nut should be tight-
ened. To cut in at lower voltage, it should be slacked off. Do not
forget to tighten up on the lock nut. In the front and toward
the bottom of the relay, an opening is noticed. When this relay
is closed, there should be a gap of approximately %4 of an inch
between the movable member of the cutout and the stationary
part. To adjust this distance, it is necessary to alter the. position
of the contact, carried on to the bridge, located on top of this
relay. This is done by slackening off the hexagon jam nut and
backing the contact screw down.

10. Adjusting Begulator.

The regulators when sent out are adjusted at a point to give
the most satisfaction over the most general average operating
conditions, but some individual cases may be brought to your
attention which will necessitate altering the regulation. This is
accomplished by means of altering the position of the conical-

Bosch'Rushmore System Troubles 459

headed screw at the top of the right-hand relay. This is done by
means of a small socket wrench. By causing the screw to travel
so that a greater pressure is exerted on the small pin undemeoth
the conical head, it results in a higher voltage at the dynamo
terminals, and slackening off this screw decreases this pressure,
and results in a lower voltage. The adjustment at all times should
be so that the battery is maintained at approximately 80% charged,
but at no time should the regulator be set so that the dynamo
voltage just previous to the automatic relay operating is more
than 14% volts, inasmuch as this would eause a violent change in
the intensity of light, when the automatic relay operated.

No mention has been made in these instructions of the right-
hand switch on the control box. This was purposely left out,
inasmuch as the switching combination has been changed, and this
switch is now inoperable. The dynamo and the battery are always
in parallel with the automatic relay or cutout contacts in series.

If Starter Will Not Turn Motor.

1. See that starter pedal is not sticking and goes all the way
down. Disconnect storage battery under seat, if pedal sticks.

2. Note whether starter gear goes into engagement. If starter
spins, /'nurse'' the pedal until gear engages.

3. See that main leads between battery switch and starter are
firmly connected, especially at the battery.

4. Battery may be discharged. Test gravity per separate in-
structions.

5. Start with crank and report promptly to Bosch or Harmon
representatives.

If Starter Turns Motor, But Motor WUl Not Fire.

1. Do not continue to ''chum" motor, but check over motor
conditions. See that —

Ignition switch is in proper position.

Throttle lever is open about one and one-half inches.

Air choke lever is closed (in cool or cold weather).

There is gasoline in the carburetor.

Gasoline line cock is open.

2. With a very cold motor it may take some time to get an

^60 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

i^table mixture into the cylinders, but if the air choke valve
almost entirely closes the carburetor intake a strong suction will
draw gasoline into cylinders as effectively as priming. In extreme
cold weather a prompt start will follow wrapping a hot water-
soaked cloth about intake manifold.

3. In moderate weather continued churning with the air choke
closed will cause cylinders to flood. To clear motor open wide the
air choke and throttle levers. If stUl unable to get an explosion,
do not continue to apply starter, but look for the trouble.

4. See that carburetor is getting its supply of pure gasoline.
Drain vacuum feed reservoir and note carefully whether there

is dirt or water present.

If so, drain carburetor and fill reservoir by revolving motor
with starter with air valve closed.

Then see that you are getting good gasoline and you will get
a start.

If you cannot get gasoline to flow, water may be frozen or line
may be choked with sediment.

If gasoline supply seems all right, turn to ignition.

5. See whether you get a spark at spark plugs when cranking
by placing a screw driver or other metal from metallic connection
on top of plug to metal on motor. If not—

Disconnect magneto ground switch wire. If it then fires, this
wire is grounded somewhere, causing the trouble.
If not —

Remove and inspect distributor.
See that breaker is working.

6. If you get a good spark, examine the spark plugs. They
should have a gap of .025 inch (eight thicknesses of this paper).

See that they are free from soot.
See that porcelain is not cracked.

TROUBLES IN REMY STARTING, LIGHTING AND

IGNITION SYSTEMS.

The diagrams presented in preceding chapter should make clear
the various connections of this electrical system and a review of
the following suggestions for locating trouble, which are taken from

Remy System Troubles and Remedy 461

the instructions of the Eemy Company will enable the reader to
remedy any defective condition that might materialize.

Grounds and Short CircvMs, — It is readily seen, by a glance at
these diagrams, that this is what is known as a one-wire system,
that is, the bodies of the machines, the engine and the frame of the
car form one-half of the circuit between the battery and the
motor, ignition-generator, ignition switch, and lamps. Thus it
will be seen that if the insulation is worn off any one of the wires
and the copper touches any of the metal parts of the car, a short
circuit will result, which will either render the system inoperative
by blowing out one or both of the fuses or will discharge the
battery. Short circuits may result from two bare wires coming
into contact, but in general where short circuits are mentioned in
this book a contact of a bare wire with some of the metal parts of
the car is referred to. By *'open circuits" is meant broken wires,
fuse burnt out, or proper connections not made to the frame. It
should be borne in mind that inasmuch as the frame of the car
forms one-half of the electrical circuit between the lamps, the
ignition switch and the battery, the frames of the lamps and the
proper terminals of the ignition switch and battery should be well
grounded to the frame of the car at all times.

All Lights Go Out — Ignition Fails — Starting Motor Dead. — The
cause of this is: (1) A loose connection either at battery terminals,
at battery side of starting switch, or at point where battery is
grounded to the frame of the car. (2) A loose connection at motor
side of starting switch or at starting motor and the wire between
the switches broken. (3) Loose connection at motor side of start-
ing switch or at starting motor and the Model 79 fuse burnt out.

All Lights Go Out — Ignition Fails — Starting Motor 0. K. — ^A
short or open circuit in the wire between the starting switch and
the Model 79 fuse block or the Model 79 fuse being burnt out
might be the cause of this. Look first to see if this fuse is intact.
If the fuse is burnt out make a careful examination — for grounds —
of the wiring between the Model 148 switch, the lamps and the
ignition distributor before replacing with new fuse. See that all
connections on the fuse block and the back of the Model 148 switch
are tight.

462 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

All Lights Oo Out — Ignition and Starting Motor 0. K. — It is
evident that this trouble is confined to open circuits between the
lighting switch and the lamps, loose connections at lighting switch
or at lamps, or burned out bulbs.

Ignition Fails — Lights and Starting Motor 0. K. — This trouble
may be traced to loose connections at the ignition switch, coil or
ignition distributor, poor grounding of the switch on the speed-
ometer support screw or open circuits or short circuits between
the ignition switch and distributor. See that the contact points
in the breaker box are adjusted correctly and examine all high
tension wires.

All Lights Go Dim. — ^A short circuit between the battery and
starting switch or between the starting switch and ignition gener-
ator would cause this trouble. The most probable cause is a dis-
charged battery resulting from leakage of current due to short cir-
cuits in the wiring ; using bulbs of higher candle-power than those
recommended ; using low eflBciency carbon filament bulbs, or defects
in. the generator which prevents it from charging properly. Make
sure that the generator protective fuse on the relay regulator base
is not burned out. Another possible, though hardly probable,
cause is that the relay points might remain closed. This would
cause the current from the battery to be dissipated in the wind-
ings of the ignition generator. If this is the case the cover may
be removed and the contact broken by releasing the relay blade
with the finger. If the contact points are roughened or pitted,
draw a piece of very fine sandpaper lightly between them and
carefully remove all dirt or dust. If the generator protective fuse
is intact and the ignition generator is not charging properly, the \
relay-regulator cover should be removed and all contact points \
examined to make sure that they are not kept separated by some
small particle of foreign matter that is not capable of conducting
electricity. A small quantity of dirt between the points will keep
the generator current from flowing to the battery, and will natu-
rally produce a discharged battery in time.

Generator Test. — A simple test to determine if the ignition-
generator is properly operating is first, switch all lights on with
engine idle; second, start engine and run same reasonably fast.

!!'

Repairing Storage Battery 463

If lights brighten after starting engine, it proves that the ignition-
generator is properly delivering current. This test must neces-
sarily be conducted in the dark, either in garage or, preferably,
at night time.

One Light Goes Dim, — The more probable causes of this are
a defective bulb or connection at the lamp. If these are 0. K.,
make an examination for short circuits in the wiring to the lamp.

One Light Flickers, — Loose or frayed connection at lamp or at
switch. An intermittent ground or short circuit in the wiring to
the lamp. Bulb loose in socket.

Tail Light Ooes Out, — Look first for a burned out bulb. Then
see that the wire to the lamp is not broken, that connections at
switch an(J lamp are tight and that the body of the lamp is making
good electrical connection with the frame of the car.

Cowl Light Ooes Out. — ^Make an examination, same as in pre-
ceding paragraph, of cowl light circuit.

Head Lights Oo Out, — Make same examination of head light
circuit.

One Head Light Ooes Out. — It is evident that this trouble is
confined to an open circuit between the junction A and the lamp,
bad connection at lamp, burned out bulb or frame of lamp not
grounded properly.

Starting Motor, — The closing of the starting switch completes
the circuit and puts the starting motor in operation. If it does
not spin th« engine, release the switch at once, ascertain if all
connections are tigtt and secure, that the motor brushes are bear-
ing on commutator properly, and inspect the battery. If the start-
ing motor turns the engine over very slowly, it is evident that
the battery is weak or engine exceptionally stiff, for some reason,
probably overheating or lack of lubricant.

If the starting motor is spinning the engine at a reasonable
cranking speed and the engine does not fire, remember that the
starting motor is performing its duty, so do not let it continue
to spin the engine longer than necessary as a needless drain is
placed upon the battery. If the engine does not fire, it is evident
that the trouble is confined to carburetor or ignition, and the
failure to start is no fault of the starting system.

464 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

Inatrnctions for Eepairing Storage Battery. — In repairing a
Willard storage battery a definite routine must be followed in tear-
ing down and building up same in order that it will be in tbe best
condition when re-assembled. (See Pig. 273.) These steps are as
follows :

First ; Remove all vent plugs and washers.

Second : Centerpuneh both top connectors in each cell which
is to be repaired ; then drill %-ineh into top connector, with a fl-
inch diameter drill. Now pull off top connector with pair of pliers.

TO? CCMHtfTOt-HJ

5CA,LIM& COMRMN
IKKCX COVCK-

Fig. 273. — Method of Drllllug Into Terminal Post of Wlllaid Eattery and
How Plates and Separators are Assembled.

Third: Apply gas flame or blowtorch flame to the top of the
battery long enough to soften the sealing compound under the top
cover. Now, with heated putty knife, plow out the sealing com-
pound around the edge of top cover.

Repairing Storage Battery 465

Fourth : Insert a putty knife, or any other thin, broad pointed
tool, lieated in flame, along underside of top cover, separating it
from the sealing compound. Then with putty knife, pry the top
cover up the sides and off of the terminal posts.

Fifth : Then, with heated putty knife, remove all sealing com-
pound from inner cover.

Sixth : Now play the flame onto the inner cover until it becomes
soft and pliable ; then take hold of both terminal posts of one cell,
and remove the elements from the jar, slowly; then lift the inner
cover from the terminal posts.

Seventh : Now separate positive and negative elements, by pull-
ing them apart sideways. Destroy old separators.

Eighth : To remove a leaky jar, first empty the electrolyte from
the jar, and then play the flame on the inside of the jar until the
compound surrounding it is soft and plastic ; then with the aid of
two pairs of pliers, remove it from the crate, slowly, lifting evenly.

Ninth : To put in a new jar, in place of the leaky one, heat it
thoroughly, in a pail of hot water, and force in gently.

Tenth : In re-assembling the battery, first assemble the positive
and negative elements, pushing them together sideways ; then turn
them on the side and with both hold downs in place, insert new
separators, being very careful to have the 'grooved side of the
separators next to each side of each positive plate. Also be care-
ful to have the separators extend beyond the plates on each side,
so there will be no chance of the plates short-circuiting. Now press
all separators up against hold downs.

Eleventh : Heat up inner cover with flame ; then place same on
terminal posts ; then take hold of both terminal posts and slowly
lower the elements into the jar.

Twelfth: Now, with expansion chamber in place on the inner
cover, pour the melted sealing compound on to the inner cover,
until it reaches the level of the hole in the top of the expansion
chamber, — i.e, so that when the top cover is replaced, it will squeeze
the sealing compound off the top of the expansion chambers.

Thirteenth: Now soften top cover with flame and replace on
terminal posts until it rests on top of expansion chamber; then
place a weight on top cover until sealing compound cools.

466 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

Fourteenth: Now, four sealing compound around the edge of
the top cover, until it reaches the top of top cover; then when the
sealing compound has cooled, take a putty knife and scoop extra
sealing compound off of top cover, making a smooth surface over
all the top of the battery.

Fifteenth : In burning the top connector to terminal post, pro-
ceed as follows: Scrape the hole of the top connector until the
Durface is bright and clean; scrape terminal post until top and
edge are bright and clean. Now, scrape a piece of lead — ^preferably
a small bar — ^bright and clean; then apply hydrogen gas flame,
mixed with air under pressure, to the top connector and terminal
post assembled, at the same time heating lead bar. When top con-
nector and terminal post begin to melt, apply lead bar directly on
same, melting it, thus making a firm burned connection. Then
fill rest of hole-space with melted lead and smooth off even with
top of top connector.

CHAPTER VII

MISCELLANEOUS ELECTRICAL DEVICES

Non-Glare Devices — Electrical Alarms — ^Electrical Signals — Gear Shifting by
Electricity — ^Electric Brake — Carburetor Warmer — ^Electric Vulcanizera
— Entz Electric Transmission — Novel Lamps and Miscellaneous Devices.

Glaring Headlights.— Speaking of glaring headlights, the cause
and elimination or reduction,- a writer in Horseless Age discourses
as follows: Even when acetylene head lamps were still commonly
used on automobiles, there was considerable objection to their
blinding glare, and many drivers in the big citiesr then pasted
translucent paper to the back of the lenses or glasses, or gave the
lenses a coating of paint, except for a small central circle. When,
the still more powerful electric heafllights became popular, so much
annoyance was caused to pedestrians and drivers that several mu-
nicipalities took action in the matter. One of the first cities to
prohibit the use of glaring headlights in its streets was Chicago,
whose ordinance provides in substance that *4t shall be unlawful
for any person operating an automobile to use a bright headlight,
unless such headlight be properly shaded so as not to blind or
dazzle other users of the highway/' The New York City ordinance
contains practically the same provision. The city of Cleveland
has adopted an ordinance providing that at a distance of seventy-
five feet or more ahead of the vehicle none of the reflected light
• from a headlight must be visible more than three feet above the
roadway. A similar law is in force in the State of New Jersey.

It would thus appear that the problem can be solved in two
essentially different ways. Either the light must be dimmed as a
whole or else it must be tilted or shaded in such a manner that
none of its reflected rays can rise beyond a certain height. In
this connection it may be well to explain what is meant by * * glare, * '

467

468 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

.-PILOT BULB

FROST£D
OLASS

CLEAR
61ASS

^SHADE ROLLED UP

OP£PArm&
W/RE

•$HA'OE PULLED
DOWN

fig. 274. — Simple Methods of Eliminating Headlight Glare.

the term most frequently used to express the blinding effect of
powerful headlights. Perhaps the best definition yet given is the
following: **A glaring light is one which interferes with the acute-
ness of vision of adjacent objects.'' Glare is due chiefly to the
ultra violet rays of the spectrum. It has therefore been proposed
to use a yellow lens or front glass on head lamps, which absorbs
the ultra violet and blue rays and transmits only red, orange,
vellow and green rays. This special glass used for the purpose

Reducing Headlight Glare 469

transmits the red and other rays with very little absorption, hence
the total radiation is not materially reduced. Another fact to be
taken into account is that the red rays penetrate farthest through
a misty or foggy atmosphere, as is shown by the fact that the sun
when rising or setting always appears red. Hence the penetration
of the beam of the headlight is not much, if any, diminished by
the yellow glass.

Methods of Reducing Glare. — ^By usiug two bulbs in the head-
lights, a larger one in focus and a smaller one out of focus, as in
the Gray & Davis lamp shown at A, Pig. 274, both an intense light
for country driving and a subdued, non-glaring light for city
driving can be obtained from a single lamp without any shading
device and without waste of current. This arrangement gives the
car the equivalent of both head and side lights, reducing the side
lamps to the small bulbs.

Another principle which may be employed for preventing an-
noying glare is that of making certain portions of the front glass
of such form that they will disperse the rays falling upon them,
rather than transmit them without deflection. Thus by making the
top half of the glass of grooved or corrugated form the top half
of the beam will be broken up and only the bottom half remain,
and the lamp can then be so adjusted on its bracket that no part
of the beam rises more than a certain height above the road sur-
face. This principle of limiting the maximum height of the shaft
of light works all right on level ground but it is ineffective when
a car approaches the crest of a hill, which is one of the critical
conditions in night driving. In such a case it would certainly
be better if the driver had some means at his command for in-
stantly reducing the intensity of the projected beam. Sometimes
the lamp is provided with a frosted glass, having only a small por-
tion of clear glass as shown at B, Fig. 274.

An early method of dimming electric headlights consisted in
reducing the voltage applied to them, either by connecting the two
lights in series across the battery or by introducing a resistance in
the circuit. Connecting the lights in series is advantageous on
account of the current economy resulting therefrom. There is one
objection to it, however, namely, that in case one filament breaks*

470 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

Tig. 275. — Miscellaneous FlttlngB to Uee in Connection vlth Electric
Headllglits to Reduce Objectionable Glare.

both lamps will go out instantly and the driver, therefore, will be
enveloped in more or leas darkness. This, however, is a less serious
matter in city driving than it would be in country driving, be-
cause of the street lighting.

Another dimmer consists of a shade of translucent material,
as depicted at the bottom of Fig. 274, similar to a window shade,
which is rolled up in a tube above the lamp when not in use
and is drawn in front of the lamp by means of a cord connection

Reducing Headlight Glare 471

to a foot-operated device when it is desired to dim the lights.
When the foot pressure is removed from the pedal a spring auto-
matically rolls up the curtain in the tube.

The method shown at A, Fig. 275, involves the use of a lamp
with a readily movable reflector which can be moved out of focus
with respect to the bulb for city work, or where the anti-glare laws
are stringent. When the searchlight effect is wanted it is very
easy to bring the reflector in focus again. A foot-controlled form
of dimming switch is shown at B. This is intended to be placed
under the toe board, having the plunger project through where it
can be easily depressed. Such devices may work either by inter-
posing a resistance in circuit or by coupling the lamps in series
momentarily.

The Amco auto light deflector, outlined at C, is a small white
enamel reflector that is snapped on the lower side of an electric
bulb. It deflects all light rays to the upper half of the lamp
reflector from which they are cast outwardly and downwardly, as
at Pig. 276, and eliminating all glare. By this principle the
strength of the light is not decreased, the road being as well illu-
minated as before.

The Amco auto light deflector adequately meets all laws govern-
ing headlights and has been highly recommended by experts. The
Department of Motor Vehicles of the State of New Jersey is one
of the latest indorsees.

The use of shutters or' curtains naturally suggests itself, and a
number of dimmers of this class have been brought out. The No-
Daz, shown at D, Fig. 275, consists of a series of translucent
screens which normally stand parallel to the axis of the beam of
light so as not to obstruct the light, but upon pushing a button
which energizes an electro-magnet, they are placed at right angles
to the beam of light, thus placing a curtain of translucent material
in front of the lamp. The apparent source of light is then a
rircular plane of considerable diameter, which gives a mellow, dif-
fused light claimed to be suflBciently strong for driving at ordinary
speeds and unobjectionable to other road users. The operating
mechanism consists of a small solenoid placed out of sight close
to the screen.

472 Starting^ Lighting and Ignition Systems

The Aderente, illustrated at Pig. 275, E, is a non-blinding de-
vice which is so arranged as to cut out the glare and at the same
time have many of the rays of light thrown directly ahead of the
car in order to illuminate the roads. According to the manufac-
turer the device is not a dimmer, but rather increases the power
of the projected light by deflecting the rays to the road which

would otherwise be
thrown upwards or in a
straight line ahead of
the car, thereby blind-
ing approaching pedes-
trians or drivers. The
device is attached to the
lamp door, and al-
though made of metal,
is said to have the ap-
pearance of cut glass.
It does not require ad-
justment and does not
have to be touched
whether the car is be-
ing driven through the
city streets or in the
country. As the device
is attached inside the door, it should not require frequent cleaning.
Electrical Alarms. — The old style hand-operated bulb horn has
given way to the more easily actuated electrical signals since the
use of electrical current has become general in the modem auto-
mobile. These signals operate on two principles: they may be the
buzzer type, as shown at Fig. 277, A and B, or may be of the
form having a mechanically actuated diaphragm, as shown at C
and D. The buzzer type horns actuate the diaphragm by magnetic
attraction just as an electric bell hammer is actuated by the
magneto. In one form the diaphragm is attracted directly by the
magnet, in the other, shown at B, the sound-producing element is
vibrated by a plunger rod attached to an armature. The mechani-
cal type in which the diaphragm is moved by a ratchet wheel is

Fig. 276. — ^Illustration Showing How the Use
of Shields Under the Lamp Bulbs Reduces
Glare by Deflecting the Light Bays to the
Ground.

Electric Alarm Signals

473

the most popular type, and makes the most penetrating noise.
The sound of a buzzer type horn may be regulated by the adjust-
ing screw provided for the purpose.

A motor-driven warning signal is the latest addition to the
Stewart accessory family. The motor is very simply arranged,
with the ratchet rotor on the end of the armature shaft and

ADJusrm

Housme

\tLECTRO MA6H£T

D/AMM6J!f
ELECTRIC HORN

CAIfMO^

OlAPHfTACif
ADJffSTffENT

OrAPHRAGM

SFRllfG

jNORHAV 5H0WIN6 REAR PtSPlACE".

HENf OF ROTOR AND DISPLAUHEnT-

.SfRim SHAFT OFOfAPURAeft

SlpPiS. 0,AP«RAGM-BUZZrR ''' '^^^^^
•ACTION

\HOUSffie
I D/APffRA6Jf
ROTOR

AtXJUStfNG
^SCREYf jCOMTACT
POINTS '

\ ELECTRO
HA6NE7

ARlfATURE

ittCTRl.C bUZiER HORN

WEARPfECE

■DIAGRAM OF MECHANICAL
HORN ACTION

Fig. 277. — Diagram Showing Construction of Electric Buzzer and Other

Mechanical Horns.

bearing directly against a stirrup on the diaphragm. This ar-
rangement provides a very simple and direct mechanism for pro-
ducing the sound. A feature of the instrument is that the motor
is completely assembled in itself and can be slipped directly into
the housing of the warning signal. "With this arrangement, the
bearings are always in alignment and the friction and resistance
are cut to a minimum. The front bearing at the rotor end is a
bronze bushing, while at the other end there is a ball thrust X, as
shown in the illustration Fig. 278. The lubrication of the yds*

474 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

rneut ia taken care of by a ball oiler which provides a ]
directly to the armature shaft.

Some of the advantages claimed for the instrument by the
manufactiirers are light weight, high speed with small amperage,
water-tight winding, firm fastenings to resist centrifugal force,
hard drawn copper commutator and the winding which is so ar-

Tig, 278. — The StttwoTt Electric Motoi Driven Warnlsg Alsnn.

ranged as to provide maximum saturation of the fields. The tone
of the signal may be adjusted by a sounding button in the center
of the diaphragm.

Direction Indicators. — In any city where there is considerable

traffic, there is always the liability of a car colliding with one that

suddenly stopped without giving due notice of the fact to

following. A number of electrically operated direction in-

Direction Indicators 475

dieators have been devised to give notice of an intention to stop
or to turn with a view of eliminating danger of collision. Typical
devices of this nature are shown in Fig, 279. The Warner device
shown at A is a very neat and easily installed form. The external
appearance of this device is made clear by the photograph, which
also shows its size, by comparison with the standard number plate.
The outer case is brass, and inside there is a glass cylinder dividecl

Pig. 279.— Views Showing ConstmcUon of Electric Signals for Vt» at the
Bear of tbe Car.

into four sections, one bearing the word "Stop," another colored
plain red, and the other two labelled "Turn," bearing arrows
pointing to right and left respectively. At the end of the case
there are three magnets which can be caused to pull around an
armature and turn the glass cylinder more or less according to
which magnet is energized. In the section this armature is shown
hanging in the bottom position to which it returns by gravity when
the magnets are deenei^ized. The lamp is accessible from tb'
of the case, and there is a long, narrow window along the

476 Starting J Lighting and Ignition Systems

the case through which a shaft of light illuminates the registration
plate.

It is recommended that the control be both by finger-operated
switch and by connection to the brake pedal for bringing the
**Stop" signal into play. Normally, when there is no current in
any magnet and the armature lies at the bottom, it is the plain
red section of the glass cylinder that is opposite the rear window,
and this acts as a tail light. A bell forms the left end of the outer
case, as can be seen in the cut, and this is arranged to ring every
time the signal is operated.

The Safetylite is the name of a rear signal recently put on the
market shown at Fig. 279, B, which indicates the direction in
which a car is going to turn as shown in the accompanying illus-
i:ration by means of arrows. The device consists of an aluminum
casing containing electric bulbs controlled from the dash or steer-
ing wheel. The light from the bulbs brightens either the right or
the left arrow so as to render it clearly visible to a driver in the
rear. The signal is fitted with a standard license-plate bracket.

The Pomeroy signal is shown at C. This also provides the red
rear light and also indicates Left, Right and Stop. The drawing
shows electrical operation, there being three solenoids ; two operate
the swinging indicator lever to show L or R and tlie third contrds
a shutter which normally covers up the stop signal. Electri<; con-
tacts are arranged on the steering wheel so that movement in either
direction swings over the right and left lever, and for the stop
signal there is a separate push button.

The Vulcan Electric Gtearshift. — ^A new system of gear shifting
has been recently* developed which depends on the use of electric
current to shift the gears instead of the usual hand lever. The
steering wheel is shown at Fig. 280, with the various speed-chang-
ing buttons let into a box attached to the steering post while the
wiring is as outlined at Fig. 281. The operation of shifting a gear
is very simple, consisting merely of depressing the clutch pedal and
pressing down on the switch button marked with the gear ratio
desired. The system is not complicated, the gears being controlled
by solenoid coils, one being used for each forward speed and one
for reverse. Two switches are utilized between the battery and

Ftdcm Electric Gearshift 477

I
I

!
I

478 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

the coils, a knife switch controlled by the clutch pedal and a push
button located on the steering wheel. All changes of gears are
controlled by the knife switch and the push buttons on steering
wheel merely arranges the circuit for the particular speed desired.
A glance at the cut shows that the clutch pedal moves through a
link during the first part of its motion and during the remainder

picks up the link and
carries it along with
it. Thus the first
movement is the regu-
lar operation of the
clutch, but a continued
operation of the clutch
lever actuates the knife
switch.

Current fiows from
the battery through
the solenoid coil and
pulls a plunger against
a magnet with a force
which is given as 40
to 100 pounds. This
energy is transmitted
through an arm to the
gear-shifting fork and
gear in exactly the
same manner as if the
gears were operated
with a hand lever.
The plungers are nor-
mally in a neutral
position. When the
button is pressed on
the control member,
current passes through
the coil around one of
the plungers, drawing

Fig. 281. — Wiring Diagram Showing the
Method of Connecting the Vulcan Electric
Gear Shift with the Battery and Control
Switch.

Vulcan Electric Gearshift 479

it agaiDst the magnet. It is said that the current required to make
the shift is about 17 amperes, and it is claimed, further, that three
hundred speed changes may be made with less current consump-
tion than is required in starting the motor with an electric start-
ing device.

r^^^

^^■se^

aiA^

HAITBRT

^^^

/HWITOK'

y^w

-" SOLBBOro

r Wi

X /^^

uu^

^^^SHnrriNO

.'"

LKmva ^

WNM

jQ^""

Tit- 2S2.— SimpUflad DUgiams SbowiDg How Ouirent Passed Tmongb tbe
Solenoid Will Diaw In an Iron Core Piece WUcb May Be Slade to-
SUft tlie Qears.

An advantage claimed for this electric gearshift ia that the gears
cannot be stripped, for the reason that the clutch must be disen-
gaged before a shift can be made and the gears arC' always
neutral before the coils can accomplish the change. Furtheri

480 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

no two speeds can be utilized at the same time, because each speed
is governed independently of the others, and an intertocMng de-
vice prevents the operator from using any two buttons at one time,
even if he should make a mistake or be careless.

The box which contains the switches and solenoid coils shown
at Fig. 283 is mounted at the side of the gear box, and it is said
that the device adds only 46 pounds to the weight of the chassis.
On the S. G. V. car the control buttons are mounted in a neat

Tig. 283.— Tbe Vulcan Electric Oear Sbiftlng Element Designed for
Attacluneot to Standard Antomoblle Cbange Speed Ckaring.

aluminum box on the steering wheel, one for each speed, and one
for a neutral member. In operation the system is very simple.
If, for instance, the fourth speed button is pushed down and the
clutch is thrown out and then re-engaged, the car will remain in
fourth speed. When driving in traffic on the third speed the driver
may set the second speed button and by depressing the clutch pedal
fully will automatically shift into second speed. In a similar man-
ner all other changes may be made. The driver need not lift his
Imnil from the wheel in order to accomplish any change in the

Hartford Electric Br (ike 481

gears. Those who have witnessed the operation of this device state
that the system is quiet, the only noise being a slight click as the
gears engage when changed. This system is also used on the
Haynes 1914 automobiles and several other types.

Hartford Electrie Brake. — The brake is compact and light,
weighing only about 35 pounds. It consists of a small type of the
Hartford reversible electric motor with a worm and worm wheel
secured to a drum. To this drum is attached a steel cable, the
other end of which is fastened to the brake equalizer. (See Fig.
284.)

The most important part 'of the Hartford brake is the patented
controller which is placed within easy reach of the driver's hand,
as shown in the illustration. By this new device any desired nicety
in the application of the braking effect is obtainable by purely elec-
trical means. Actual demonstration is said to have shown it to
be possible to control a 60 horsepower car weighing over 4,000
pounds by the mere pressure of one finger on the operating lever.

A two point control is obtained with this switch, the first point
giving enough braking power for regular service, and the second
for an emergency stop. Pushing the switch back to its original
position immediately disengages the brake. The idea of the whole
system may be summed up in a few words by saying that the
manual labor usually connected with brake operation is replaced
by the work of a high speed, series wound electric motor which
may be fed with current from a storage battery or either 6, 12 or
24 volts (for automobile purposes, or higher voltage, if desired, for
other purposes) . The armature shaft of this motor carries a worm
which drives a worm gear at a reduction of 100 to 1. This worm
gear in turn operates a drum through an internal gear at a reduc-
tion of 4 to 1, thus giving a total reduction of 400 to 1. On the
drum is wound a steel brake-pulling cable which transmits the
pull of the motor to the brake mechanism.

When running idle the motor is capable of a speed of 10,000
r.p.m., and when under load it can exert a pull of 1,000 pounds
at a speed corresponding to a quick application of the hand emer-
gency brake. After the pull exerted on the cable has attained a
value of 1,000 pounds, a slipping clutch prevents any further in-

482 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

crease, and a ratchet prevents the brake from slippiBg off. The
powerful puU exerted on the brake cable permits of operating the
brakes in oil. It is stated that, the current flow in applying the
brake amount« to 40 amperes for two-fiftha of a second (pre-
sumably for a voltage of 6). The Hartford brake replaces the
emergency set and is used constantly in service, the foot brake re-

Tig. 281.— How the Hartford Electric Brake Works.

maining as originally installed, for use if want«d. One advan-
tageous feature of the Hartford brake is that it can be easily at-
tached to any existing car, provided it is equipped with a storage
battery.

Electric Air Heater. — Nearly every starting difficulty with
automobile motors is due to poor carburetion arising from the low

Terature of the air and the fuel. It must not be foi^tten that

Electric Heater for Carburetor

488

the vaporization of a liquid extracts heat from the gas or air in
which the vaporization takes place, so that if we start with cold
air it becomes still colder by the time it has taken up the gasoline
spray. If the original air temperature is low enough the result of
the chilling action of the gasoline may easily result in the latter
being thrown down in the manifold and cylinder in liquid form,
and in such a case it
is only the lighter
fractions in the gaso-
line that mix with the
air and give an ig-
nitable gas. Often in
actual fact it is the
beat generated by the
compression of air in
the engine that causes
the deposited gasoline
to vaporize and this
sometimes explains
why a motor will start
after repeated spin-
ning following injec-
tion of raw fuel.
Since the modem car
has always plenty of
electricity available it
is a natural enough
idea to utilize some of
it for heating up the

air to be used for starting purposes, and one of the neatcet devices
having this end in view is the Paul preheater, illustrated at A,
Fig. 285. This is a section through the apparatus which is in-
tended to be inserted in the middle of the hot-air pipe of the car-
buretor; the split ends of the preheater in cop junction with the
cap nuts enable it to be gripped on flexible p'pe if desired, so
attachment is easy. Inside the chamber there is » coil of flat metal
strip having a fairly high resistance, and the ends of this strip

Tig. 2S5. — Sectional View at A Shows Con-
Btructlon of Air Warmei to Facilitate Car-
bnretlon In Cold Weatlier. Section of a
Piotective Circuit Breaker OntUued at B.

484 Starting J Lighting and Ignition Systems

are fixed to the two terminals shown. A wire is run from the
cranking battery to one of these terminals, and the return wire
passes through a switch which can conveniently be located in the
cowl. To use the heater it should be switched on about half a
minute before cranking and the carburetor primed in the usual
way. As soon as the motor starts, the exhaust pipe heats up and
there is no more need for the preheater, so it can then be
switched off.

Automatic Safety Switch. — Fuses in an automobile lighting
circuit are always a possible source of trouble, though they happen
very seldom. Their purpose is to prevent the wires in the circuit
from being overloaded and they are a great safeguard. The
trouble comes when some accident causes a short circuit, a rush
of current and a **blow.'* It is then necessary to replace the fuse
by a new one, after locating and curing the fault. Thus spare
fuses have to be carried, as it is extremely dangerous to cut out
a fuse by wiring it up with a bit of copper as is often done in
emergency when no spare fuse is available. The Hartman auto-
matic switch at Fig. 385, B, is a simple mechanical device which
automatically switches off any circuit if the current in it exceeds
the safe amount. It is operated by a small electro-magnet that
pulls the contacts apart directly the current becomes too strong.
Thus it is as effective las the fuse, while no part of it bums out
to give the break in the circuit. All sorts of units are made from
a single switch to gang switches that can control every circuit on
a car.

Lighting Oas by Electric Spark.— Many automobiles are in
use that are not equipped with electric lighting systems, and in
which stored acetylene gas is employed for the headlights. An
electric lighter which may be used to light the burners without
the driver leaving the seat is clearly shown at Fig. 286. This is
a type which robs the engine of a spark for an instant while the
gas is being lighted, a push button on the dash diverting the high
tension current from a secondary wire to the sparking points in
the headlights. The gas regulation is very simple, no automatic
reduction valve being necessary. A small, high pressure tube leads
^'•om the ga^ t^nk to ^ control valve and a regulating valve on the

Low Voltage Vulcanizers

485

Burners

dash, the former being beside tjie push button to open or close as
desired, while the regulating valve is on the engine side of the dash,
and is set as desired for securing the proper pressure at the
burners.

Low Voltage Electric Vulcanizers. — The Premier is an electric
vulcanizer weighing but two pounds and is shown at Fig. 287,
This device operates from the 6-volt storage battery usually car-
ried in the car and is provided with a thermostat which automati-
cally cuts off the cur-
rent as soon as the

vulcanizer attains the

correct heat for vul-
canizing the repair on

shoe or inner tube. It

will take any size tire

up to 5 in. diameter.

The vulcanizer may be

used either in a garage

or on the road, being

simply clamped to the

tube or casing, two

wires being connected

to the battery and

contact applied

through a button. The

simplicity of operation

of the device is said

to render it of value

in quickly healing up small cuts in casings as soon as discovered,

thereby preventing moisture from working in and rotting the

fabric.

The thing which keeps most motorists from doing their own

repairs to punctured air tu^es, is the trouble of the process, but

the electric type of vulcanizer certainly helps to minimize this.

One of the simplest, lightest and smallest machines is the Corbett

& De Coursey shown at the right in Fig. 287, which also works oflf

any six volt storage battery and so allows repairs to be made on

6o$ Con^roi
Vahe

6as Tank ^ < -'"^ 1 fs

Fig. 286. — ^How Acetylene Gas May Be Ig-
nited by Electric Spark.

486 Starting, Lighting and Igmtion Systems

the road. It should be qnite easy to vulcanize a tube while nm-
ning the car, as the vulcanizer is so light that it could be held by
any passenger without fatigue. "With the machine is a thermometer
which allows the temperature to be controlled, and also a length

of flexible wire furnished with a socket to fit the usual inspection

lamp holder on the dashboard.

Simple Becti&er. — The Westinghouse vibrating rectifier shown

at Pig. 288 is a compact and simple device invented for charging
6-volt batteries from al-
ternating current. All
that is necessary is to
connect the attachment
plug to a lamp socket
and the wires from the
binding posts to the
battery, and turn the
switch. Then leave
the battery until
chai^d, without any
attention whatever.
There are no adjust-

Fig. 2B6. — The WesttnghouBe Be«tlfler for
CliargliiK Storage BatterleB From Alter-
nating Cnrrent.

Entz Electric Transmission

488 Starting J Lighting and Ignition Systems ,

ments to be made and no parts that require frequent renewaL The
rectifier can be used on any 100 to 120-volt, 60-cycle circuit, charg-
ing three cells at a rate of 8 to 8 J^ amperes.

The Entz Electric Transmission. — In the Entz electric trans-
mission system shown at Fig. 289 there are two dynamos arranged
tandem fashion. These are connected up mechanically in such a way
that the efficiency is much higher than that secured by the use of
the gasoline-electric systems described at other points in this book.
The field frame of the first dynamo is attached to the crankshaft of
the engine, and when the armature circuit is closed, the armature
will also revolve and thereby propel the car, acting exactly the same
as a slipping clutch, the amount of slip being subject to control.
The armature is attached directly to the driving shaft, aa is that of
the motor placed back of the generator. When one transmits power
through a slipping clutch, one cannot get any more from it than
is put into it. If friction clutch slips fifty per cent., oiie-half of
the energy supplied to it is converted by friction into heat. Simi-
larly in the dynamo or generator of the Entz systeDa, if that mem-
ber turns only half as fast as the field frame, only ^^ne-half of the
power supplied to the field is mechanically transmitted. The
other half appears in the form of an electric cui'rerit in the arma-
ture circuit. If the armature were short circuited, then all of this
electrical energy would be converted into heat. TJnder conditions
of light running, however, when the high gear ^ or direct drive
would be used in a car equipped with a sliding gear transmission,
the armature of the Entz system is short circuited, but the slippage
and loss then amounts to only a. few per cent.

When the resistance to car movement is greater, so that a lower
gear must be employed in the gear driven cars, with the Entz sys-
tem, the current produced in the first armature by the slip is sent to
the windings of the motor where it produces useful mechanical
power. As the armature of the motor is secured to the propeller
shaft it transforms the electrical energy produced by the slip at the
generator to mechanical power, which supplements that transmitted
by the generator armature. The windings of the second machine
are such that the electric system can increase the torque or turning
'''ort of the engine three times, at the same time reducing the speed

Entz Electnc Transmission 489

of driving pinion rotation at the rear axle to one-third that of the
engine speed. The engine is permitted to develop its full power,
and to turn at such speed as is necessary to secure this effect, and

•

when the resistance to road wheel rotation is such that these must
turn slower, instead of slowing up the engine speed it may be kept
^t the same point and the armature of the generator allowed to
slip and generate current, which is then directed to the second
machine.

This system was first devised eight or nine years ago, and has
been recently reintroduced in- an improved and simplified form.
The appearance of the unit is; clearly shown at Fig. 289. Bolted
to the rear of the engine crankshaft is an aluminum housing, which
carries the electrical system. Two arms on this crank case rest on
the chassis frame to support it. Inside of the housing is another
case bolted to a flange at the rear end of the crankshaft. This is
the frame of the forward unit of transmission, which carries the
field coils, and which acts as a fly-wheel for the engine. To t^le
rear end of the stationary outside housing the fleld frame of the
rear electrical unit, which is intended to be stationary, is attached.
The armatures of both units are carried upon a large tubular shatt
supported by annular ball bearings. The armature shaft is coii-
nected directly to the propeller shaft, and when the car is stand-
ing still, the armature shaft is stationary, whereas when running
in the high speed position of the controller lever, it turns at practi-
cally the same speed as the engine crankshaft. '

The action may be described as follows: When the car is stand-
ing still with the engine running, the field of the forward electricfil
unit, which is called the ** generator," is rotated with the engiiie
crankshaft to which it is fastened while the armature remains
stationary. At this time all electrical circuits are open and there
is no tendency for the engine to drive the car. When the con-
troller lever is thrown into the first, or ** soft start," position, a cir-
cuit is closed through both the generator and the rear unit, which
is called the motor. The generator then begins to produce a cur
rent which is fed into the motor. At the same time there is power
applied to the armature shaft equal to the engine tendency to tu7
the shaft in the same direction as the crankshaft. The curre

490 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems '

produced by the slip owing to the difference in speed between
generator field and armature, is being fed into the motor, which also
turns the shaft in the same direction as that produced by the mag-

Fig. 290.— Wiring DiaEraon of Oampleta Automobile Lighting System
Without StarUng Uotoi.

netic clutch. In other positions of the controller up to the high
speed position different arrangements of resistances change the
speed ratio between engine and propeller shaft, but there are no
off points between the various notches, so the application of power
to the wheels is not interrupted in changing speeds. When the

Typical Lighting System 491

high speed position is reached, there is no electrical connection be-
tween the generator and the motor. The former is short circuited,
and acts as an electrical or magnetic clutch. When it is desired to
secure reverse speeds, a mechanically operated planetary reverse
gearing is used, which changes the direction of rotation of the
driving pinion. When the controller lever is in ''off'' position, the
rear unit is short circuited and it will act as an electrical brake,
preventing the car coasting down hill faster than ten miles per
hour. When actually applied in a car, current may be shunted
from the generating unit to charge a battery, which may be used
for lighting and ignition, and the current of which may be directed
through the electrical machine when it is desired to start the engine.
Tjrpical Lighting System. — In order to show clearly the wide
use that is made of electric current, even on cars not provided with
an electric starting motor, wiring diagrams are shown at Fig. 290
which represent the frame and body wiring of a Packard touring
car without starting motor. This wiring is used solely for con-
veying battery current to the lamps and other current-consuming
units, which includes a Klaxon horn and speedometer light in ad-
dition to the usual lighting equipment of six lamps. Two rear
lamps are provided, one of these the usual red signal specified by
law, the other is a white light used to illuminate the license tag.
In order to make it possible to remove the body from the chassis
without destroying the wiring, the current conductors are run in
two independent groups, one being secured to the body, the other
running through suitable conduits attached to the frame. The
upper view shows the body wiring with the storage battery con-
nected, though this member is carried by the frame and has a
connector which may be readily broken when desired to join the
battery with the body junction box. Among the appliances car-
ried by the body may be mentioned the side lamps, the speedometer
and dash lights, the Klaxon horn, and the two tail lamps. The
arrangement of the wiring is clearly shown in the illustration, the
method of running the wires from the junction box to the various
units is clearly defined. Attached to the chassis are the two head
lights, the storage battery, and the lighting generator. In this
system the generator is used to charge the storage battery, the cu^

492 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Syatema

New Things in Electric Lamps 498

rent going through the usual automatic cutout switch to prevent
a reversal of current at such times that the generator is not sup-
plying enough energy to charge the battery. As is true of the dia-
gram presented above, all of the circuits are clearly shown and may
be readily followed by any one.

New Things in Electrical Lamps. — Designers of automobiles
have not been slow in adapting the lamps used in their electric light-
ing systems to secure various advantages in mounting or by combin-
ing several lamps to simplify installation. At Fig. 291, A, the secure
method of attaching the headlights on the Pierce- Arrow automo-
bile by having the lamp case securely attached to the mud guard
is shown. The combination of small and high candle-power bulbs
in one lamp used on the Packard cars is shown at B. This is made
necessary because in some communities the law is very stringent
against glare from headlights. When used in a city the small
lamps, which are of low candle-power, may be used, while the
headlights can be turned on when in the country. The combina-
tion of the two lamps used on Locomobile is shown at D^ In this
the low candle-power bulb is placed in the upper part of the lamp.
The secure method of fastening the tail light and license plate
carrier on the rear of a Packard mud gtfard is shown at C.

The internal construction of a double bulb lamp is shown at H.
In this the small bulb for city work, which is termed: the pilot bulb,
is carried in a socket at the top of the reflector in sucli a way that
its rays are reflected to the ground instead of producing a glare, as
the main bulb does, because it is at the proper focal point of the
parabolic reflector. The pilot bulb is intended for city driving, or
when the car is standing idle at night. A number of devices have
been introduced to reduce glare, these consisting of special re-
flectors, or special lens glasses for the front of the lamp. A sim-
ple device, which is shown at E, consists of a metal shield, which
fits close to the lower half of the headlight bulb, throwing all on
the light rays against the upper half of the reflector. It is said
that this makes the light upon the roadway more intense than,
when the deflector is not used but prevents any rays from rising
nacre than four feet from the ground.

A peculiar form of glareless headlight, which is known as the

494 Starting, lAghting and Ignition Systems

New Electric Lamps 495

Eofity, has been recently introduced, this being of the unconven-
tional form ShoTvn at Fig. 291, G. The amount of light available
depends upon the candle-poiver of the bulb used. The bulb is car-

Fig. 203. — ^Portable Electric Lamps Designed to Operate on Dry Battery
Oiurent Shown at A, B and 0. Dirigible Search Ligbt Shovn at D,

ried at the lower portion of a vertical tube very little over two
inches in diameter. The lamp is a special mushroom shape, and
immediately above it is a plano-convex condensing lens that collects
the light. Immediately above this is another lens of double con-

496 Starting, Liigkting and Ignition Systems

vex form which convei^es the light and throws it against the in*
clined mirror at the top, which in turn throws is through a pro-
jection lens, which forms the front glass. This compensates for
the color distortion introduced by the condensing lens. The rea-

CDISWAN »NU£

Ftg. 204. — Types of Bulbs and Connectois Used on Most Uglitlng Systems.
A — Edlswan Double Contact. B — Ediawui SiDgle Contact 0 — Di-
mensions of StAndard Edlswan Double Contact Socket. D — Construc-
tion of Connector. E — Edlswan Double Contact Oonuectoi for Appli-
cation to Seaicbllsbts.

son why the lamps are glareless is that they throw a very sharply
defined cone of light, whose rays are so inclined, due to the angles
of the mirror, that the upper beam is parallel to the ground. As
the light never rises above its source, which is lower tbfui the
height of a man's eyes, there is no glare.

An unconventional form of searchlight for use in the cowl dash
is shown at P. This is known as the "eye-hall" type, owing to

New Electric Lamps

497

the fact that the body of the lamp is ephetieally formed, whieh per-
mits of the projected beam being turned at will through an ai^le of
about eighty degrees in both horizontal and vertical planes. The
body of the lamp is held between two rings secured to the pressed
steel eowl. The lamp can be used as a dirigible searchlight for
readily s^posts, etc., while, if an extension cord is provided, the
lamp shell can be taken directiy out of its socket and used tc^
investigate trouble at any point on the ear. This is a French
invention.

The development of the tungsten filament bulb has made it pos-
sible to secure very satisfactory l^ht from ordinary dry cell cur-

-y>~\

' \

ftf

p p p p

TYPc'ft' typs'a-

Fig. 29S — ^Recent Developmenta in Electric Light Bulbs.

rent. Two forms of hand lanterns using dry battery current are
shown at I and J. That at J is a simple fitting designed to be
attached to any dry battery having a handle by which it may be
carried. The form at I has the dry battery inserted in a suitable
metal carrying case, which makes a much neater arrangement.

The construction of the various forms of electric lamps used in
motor car lighting systems is clearly shown in Fig. 292. The
lamp outlined at A is a combination form, designed to use either
kerosene or electricity, the former beii^ used only in event of.
failure of the latter. The side lamp at B is a neat form, intended

498 Starting^ Lighting and Ignition Systems

to use electricity only. Dash, coil and speedometer lamps are de-
picted at C. A combination trouble lamp and cigar lighter is
shown at D. The trouble lamp at E is an easily portable form
and is convenient for use around the power plant, gasoline tank,
etc., deriving its current from the regular battery. A combination
tail lamp, having red lens at the rear and a white glass at the
aide to illuminate the number plate, is shown at F. The approved
construction of a variable focus electric head lamp is shown at G.

The simple attachment shown at Fig. 293, A, is intended to con-
vert any dry cell to a convenient inexpensive and portable electric
lantern. It consists of a reflector carried by a frame that attaches
to the terminals of the dry cell. To take the strain from the ter-
minals when the cell is carried, a supplementary clamping band is
also secured to the handle, this being fastened to the top of the cell.

The feature of the Federal electric hand lantern shown at B,
is that it casts no shadow on the ground beneath it. Instead of
having the lamp at the top with a solid base beneath, it has an
open foot consisting of a ring and four legs, so that the light is
strong immediately under the hand of the person carrying it as
well as spread all around. It is fed with current from a special
dry cell that is easy to replace, and clips are supplied to fasten
the lamp to the running board of the car. It is very compact when
folded and the lamp bulb is well protected, while there is a space
inside the dry cell where a spare bulb can be put.

For automobiles without electric lighting sets when a moderate
illumination is required now and then for short periods, there
is a great deal in favor of dry batteries as a source of current, as
they are less trouble to look after than oil lamps. The "Wireless
Autolight depicted at C is a well-made case supplied with a lamp
and reflector, glazed in white, green or red. It takes a standard
No. 6 cell.

Searchlights of the form shown at D are also becoming popular
because these are carried on dirigible brackets attached to the
windshield or any other convenient part of the car and the beam
of light can be directed against sign boards, around curves, etc,
at the operator's pleasure.

New Bulb Designs 499

Novel Bulb Designs. — Combining two separate and distinct
lights in one, the Tulite bulb, shown at A, Fig. 295, is designed
solving the headlight glare problem. Two types of this bulb are
shown, type R being inserted in the lamp with the minor filament
above the major, projecting the light to the roadway at short range.
This allows the focusing of a strong headlight as far ahead as
desired and, when switching to the minor filament, a good driving
light at 40 to 75 feet in front of the car. Type A has a minor
filament, mostly surrounding the major and diffuses the light in a
general way, covering eight to ten times the area of the major fila-
ment when lighted. The standard Tulite bulb is 4 candlepower on
the minor and 20 candlepower on the major filament, but other
combinations are furnished.

A new type of headlight bulb is the Argon depicted at B, which
is filled with nitrogen gas, put into it by pressure. This gas con-
tains a small percentage of argon, about 2 per cent., which, the
maker claims, permits the use of a higher voltage for a given fila-
ment. The filament is of drawn tungsten wire and is so coiled that
when properly focused the lamp does not produce dark rings.

Wagner Two-Unit System.-— The Wagner starting, light-
ing and ignition system is a two-unit form and is used on
Studebaker and Saxon cars, both of which are produced in large
quantities. As the manufacturer did not furnish the data promptly,
this system was not described in previous editions. The data having
come to hand, the writer takes pleasure in preparing a brief descrip-
tion of the two wiring diagrams found in this appendix, which are
the most popular of the Wagner systems.

The method of wiring is known as the one-wire system, using a
grounded return. In this there is but one insulated wire circuit
from the battery to each electrical unit, the return to the battery
being made through the metal parts of the frame which act as a
ground. A battery indicator is provided to show whether or not
the battery is charging. This indicator is placed on the cowl board
and should indicate ** charge" whenever the car is running at higher
' speeds than 10 miles per hour and when the lights are not in use.
It should read ** discharge" whenever the motor is stopped and the

500 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

Wagner Two-Unit System

501

LIGHTING iwrrcH

S
-**

-a

•c

In.

502 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

lights turned on. If it should fail to recharge at the proper car
speed, immediate attention is required. Should it read ** discharg-
ing'' at any time except when current is being used by the lights,
horn or ignition, the wiring system should be thoroughly examined
for short circuits. It is important that the indicator should read
**oflf" when leaving the car unless the lights are left turned on.
The generator begins to deliver current to the battery at a car speed
of about 10 miles and reaches a maximum rate of flow at about 18
miles per hour. If the indicator fails to show ** charge," the same
instructions as given in the body of the book for care of generator
will apply to this type as well.

If, for any reason, the engine is to be operated with the ignition
disconnected from the storage battery, be sure to connect the ter-
minal of the generator to some point on the metal frame of the
generator or engine by using a piece of copper wire. Such a ground
wire should always be removed when the generator is again con-
nected with the battery. A relay is used which prevents the battery
discharging back through the generator. This follows the conven-
tional construction.

, The ignition system is the Remy timer-distributor system pre-
viously described. The power of the starting motor for cranking
the engine is transmitted through a simple spur gear reduction
which is incased integrally with it. The roller chain transmits the
power from a sprocket on the speed reduction shaft of the motor
to the crankshaft of the engine. The large sprocket on the crank-
shaft operates through an over-running clutch. All the wiring
starts at a junction block on the Studebaker which also carries the
fuses. The proper method of connecting the wiring to the junction
block is also shown. It is advised that 7 volt, 12 candle-power bulbs
be used for the head lights, and 7 volt, 2 candle-power bulbs for the
tail and speedometer lamps.

The system used on the Saxon cars is somewhat simpler than that
employed on the Studebaker on account of simplifying the lighting
switch and eliminating the junction block which is provided on the
Studebaker cars. Various units of the Wagner system used on the
** Saxon Six" are so clearly shown in accompanying illustration
that further description is unnecessary. The principle of operation

Wagner Tivo-Umt System

504 Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems

is exactly the same as that which obtains on all two-unit, one-wire
i^stems.

Through the courtesy of the Editor of ''Motor Age,** the writer
is permitted to reproduce a table giving the important specifications
of the electrical equipment of the leading 1917 automobiles. This
may be used to adviantage in supplementing the very complete table
referring to 1916 cars published in the body of the book.

•--'
I

Electrical Equipment of 1917 Cora

505

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to *

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506

Electrical Equipment of J 917 Cars

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Electrical Eqvipment of 1917 Cars

507

5z;

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508

Electrical Equipment of 1917 Cars

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Electrical Equipment of 1917 Cars

509

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Electrical Equipment of 1917 Cars

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INDEX

PAGE

Acid and Water Carboy Stand.. 149

Action of Dry Cell 25

Action of Dynamo 49

Action of High Tension Ignition

System 74

Action of Low Tension Magneto 45
Action of Mercury Arc Rectifier 150
Action of Splitdorf -Dixie Mag-
neto 206

Action of Storage Battery 29

Action of Switch ! 22

Adjusting Bosch - Rushmore

Regulator 458

Adjusting Mg|,gneto Contact

Breaker 238

Adjustment of Bosch-Rushmore

Relay 458

Air Heater, Electric 482

Alternating Current Rectifiers.. 149

Ammeter. D-^lco 96

Ampere, Definition of 59

Amperemeter, Function of 271

Amperemeter Indications, Delco

System 446

Apparatus for Battery Charg-
ing 148

Atwater-Kent Distributor 85

Auto-Lite System 339

Automatic Controls 267

Automatic Safety Switch 484

Automatic Spark Advance 227

Automatic Spark Advance,
Delco 91

Battery Charging Apparatus..,. 148
Battery Charging, Lamp Bank
for 155

511

PAGB

Battery Ignition System Hints. . 179
Battery Ignition Systems, Trou-
bles in 134

Battery Ignition, Timing 181

Battery, Simple Primary 24

Baum6-Specific Gravity Equiv-
alents 140

Bijur-Hupmobile Starting Gear-
ing 294

Bijur One-Unit System 372

Bijur-Packard System 383

Bijur Systems, Lighting and

Starting 372

Bijur System Parts 38^

Bijur Two-Unit Systems 373

Bijur Voltage Regulator 374

Bosch DeLuxe System 390

Bosch D. U. 4 Magneto 200

Bosch N. U. 4 Magneto 202

Bosch-Rushmore Automatic Re-
lay 45S

Bosch-Rushmore Regulator 458

Bosch-Rushmore Systems 390

Brushes, Care of 427

Brushes, For Magneto 42

Bulbs, Novel Designs of 499

Buzzer Horns 472

Capacity of Storage Battery. ... 30
Care and Repair of Commuta-
tors 429

Care of Bosch N. U. 4 Magneto 204

Care of Brushes 427

Care of Lamps 436

Chalmers-Entz System 339

Charging Batteries from Alter-
nating Current Mains 149

512

Index

PAGE

Charging Edison Battery 160

€9iargin|» from Direct Carrent. . 153

Charging Bnles 143

Charging Storage Battery 141

Chemical Action Produces Elec-
tricity 23

Circnit Breaker, Delco 94

Cirenit Breaker or Cutout 267

Circuit Breaker, Thermostatic. . 122

Circuit, Closed 22

Circuit, Open 28

Circuits, Gray and Davis Sys-
tem 352

Cleaning Spark Plugs 166

Cleaning Vibrator Points 169

Closed dreoit 22

Closed Circuit Distributor Sys-
tem 120

Closed Circuit, Parts of 22

Closed Coil Winding 56

Combination Switch, Deleo 98

Commutators, Care of 429

Comparing High and Low Ten*
Bion Magneto 46

Comparing Two-Unit and One-
Unit Systems 279

Compound Distributor 208

Compound Wound Dynamo 54

Compressed Gas, How Ignited. . 66

Condenser, Function of 70

Condensers, Deleo 92

Conductors, Electrical 22

Connecticut Ignition System,

1916 Type 122

Connecticut Ignition Unit 120

Constant Speed Dynamo 51

Construction of Storage Battery 28
Contact Breaker, Connecticut

System 120

Contact Points, Adjusting 232

Contact Points, Cleaning. ..:,. 232
^««tacts. How Spaced in Timers 81

Cranking Action, Voltmeter Test

for 452

Cure for Sulphating 147

Current Flow, Gray k Davis

System 352

Current Fluctuation in Magneto 40
Current Production, by Chemical

Action , . 23

Current Regulation by Third

Brush 327

Defective Win^ngs, Testing for 447
Definition of Electrical Terms. . 56

Delco Ammeter 96

Delco Ammeter Beading, Motor-
ing Generator 450

Delco Automatic Spark Advance 91

Delco Circuit Breaker 94

Delco Combination Switch 98

Delco Condenser 92

Delco Cranking Action, Test of 452
Delco Current Output Begula-

tion 326

Delco Generator Clutch 317

Delco Generator Troubles, In-
dications 446

Delco Ignition Coil Parts 92

Delco Ignition Distributor, 1916

Model 96

Delco Ignition System 87

Delco Induction Coil 92

Delco Motor Clutch 320

Delco Motor Generator 314

Delco Motor Generator Lubrica- ^

tion 320

Delco Besistance Unit 94

Delco Starting and Lighting

Systems 312

Delco Starting Switch 304

Delco System Troubles 442

Delco Test Points 445

Index

513

PAGE

t>elco Third Brush Cnrrent Begu-

iation 327

Deico Timer 89

Delco Timer, Setting 99

Deico Voltage Generator 322

Delco Volt. — Ammeter for Test-
ing 443

Determining Plate Polarity. . . . 147

Dimming Headlights 469

Direct Current Charging Means 153

Direction Indicators 475

Distributor, Atwater-Kent 85

Distributor, Definition of 77

Distributor, Delco 96

Distributor Segments, Spacsing. . 187

Distributor, Westinghouse 100

Double and Triple Ignition Sys-
tems 130

Dry Battery Lamps 498

Dry Cell Action 25

Dry Cell Construction 25

Dry Cell Container 137

Dry Cell Faults 134

Dry Cells, Testing 135

Dry Cells, Wiring Methods 25

Dual Magneto System 216

Dual System, Bosch 218

Duplex System 218

Dynamo Action 49

Dynamo, Constant Speed 50

Dynamo Construction 49

Dynamo Electric Machines 48

Dynamo, Governed 51

Dynamo Governors 267

Dynamo Windings 54

Dyneto-Entz One Unit System. . 330

Dyneto Non-Stalling Feature.. 336

Early Ignition Methods 66

Edison Cell, Construction of. . . . 157
Efficiency of Starting Systems 280

PAQB

Eight Cylinder Firing Orders.. 251

Electric Air Heater 482

Electric Brake 481

Electric Current, Flow of 18

Electric Current, Water Analogy

to 18

Electric Gearshift 476

Electric Hand Lanterns 498

Electric Lamps, Care of 436

Electric Lamps, New Designs.. 493

Electric Starter Principles 258

Electric Transmission, Entz. . . . 488
Electric Vulcanizers, Low Volt-
age 485

Electrical Alarms 472

Electrical Circuit, Water Analo-
gy to 19

Electrical Circuits, Parts of... 21, 22

Electrical Conductors 22

Electrical Energy, Generating

Delco 32a

Electrical Equilibrium 19

Electrical Equipment Specifica-
tions 306

Electrical Ignition, Methods of 67

Electrical Insulators 22

Electrical Measuring Instru-
ments 60

Electrical Bear Signals 476

Dectrical Terms, Definition of . . 56
Electrically Charged Bodies. ... 18
Electricity, Generation by Mag-
neto 38

Electricity, How Measured. .... 60

Electricity, Nature of 17

Electricity, Produced by Fric-
tion 18.

Electricity, Production by Chem*

ical Action 29

Electricity, Production by Dyna-
mo 48

Electricity, Belation to Magne-
tism r.. Z7>

514

Index

TAom
Eleetrolytey Freezing Point of. . 162

Electrolytic Becti£er 149

Electrostatie Effeets 173

Elementary Electrie Starter

Principles 258

Entz Electrie Transmission .... 488
Essential Parts of Magneto. ••• 40
External Spark Gap 108

Faults in Generators 426

Faults in Motors 426

Faults in Spark Plugs 163

Faults in Wiring 431

F. I. A. T. Starting Pinion Shift 413

Field Magnets 42

Firing Order of Typical Engines 250

Flow of Electricity 20

Flushing Cells, Evils of 146

Ford Magneto 212

Ford Magneto Constraction .... 53

Ford Systems, One Unit 360

Ford Wiring Diagram 117

Forms of Magnets 35

Four Cylinder High Tension Dis-
tributor System 116

Four Cylinder Ignition by Vi-
brator Coil 115

Four Cylinder Magnets, Parts of 189
Freezing Points of Electrolyte. 162

Function of Condenser 70

Function of Delco Condenser... 92

Gas Lighting by Spark 484

Gauge for Setting Spark Gap.. 104
Gearing and Clutches for Start-
ing 291

Gear Shifting by Electricity. ... 476

Generator Clutch, Delco 317

Generator Coil, Grounded 448

PAOl

Generator Coil, Open 44%

Generator Coil, Shorted 443

Ctonerator Driving Methods 288

Generator, Function of '265

Generators and Starting Motors,

Comparing 281

Generators, Troubles in 42C

Generators, Typical 281

Glaring Headlights, Devices for 468
Glaring Headlights, Eliminating 467

Governed Dynamo 51

Governed Dynamo, Gray & Davis 282

Governed Speed Magneto 19S

Governor Coupling, Herz 228

Graphic Determination of Lines

of Force 35

Gray & Davis 1915 System 355

Gray & Davis Governed Dynamo 282
Gray & Davis Laminated Switch 304
Gray & Davis Overland Sys-
tem 345

Gray & Davis System Troubles 423
Grounded Generator Coil, Find-
ing 448

Grounded Motor Winding 448

Halladay Timer — ^Distributor. . . 125

Hand Lanterns, Electric 498

Hartford Electric Brake 481

Hartford Starting System 419

Headlight Glare, Methods of Be-

ducing 469

High and Low Tension Magnetos

Compared 46

High Tension Magnetos 4d

High Tension Magneto Systems 189
High Tension Magneto Troubles 229

Horseshoe Magnet 36

How Induction Coil Works 70

How Iron or Steel is Magnetized 36
How Twd Batteries are Wired in

Circuit 32

Index

515

PAGB

How Winding Affects Current

Production 42

Hydrometer Syringe, Use of . . . . 148

Igniter Plate Action 127

Igniter Plate, Disadvantages of 130

Igniter Plate, Low Tension 128

Ignition Cables, Protecting. . . . 176

Ignition Coil, Delco 92

Ignition Distributor, Delco for

1916 96

Ignition Besistance Unit 94

Ignition Systems, Magnetic Plug 223

Ignition System, Remy Dual 214

Ignition System, Splitdorf Dual. 214

Ignition System, Two-Spark 219

Ignition System, Delco 87

Ignition Systems, Low Tension 126

Ignition Unit, Westinghouse 100

Impulse Starter, Action of 224

Index to Signs, Symbols and

Abbreviations 64

Indicators, Direction 475

Induction Coil, Action of 70

Induction Coil Construction.... 71

Induction Coil, Delco 92

Induction Coil Faults 168

Induction Coil Types 72

Induction Coil Vibrator 70

Induction Coil Windings 69

Inductor Type Magneto 196

Inherent Regulation of Current 269
Insulating Materials for Plugs. . 104
Insulators, Electrical 22

Kemco Fan Generator System . . 414
Kemco Starting Motor 416

Lamp Bank Resistance for Bat-
tery Charging 154

PAGE

Light Deflectors 471

Lighting Gas by Electricity. . 484

Lighting Switch, Use of 273

Lighting System, Typical Elec-
trical ; 491

Lines of Force, Definition of ... . 35
Locating Defective Plug In-
sulation 166

Locating Magneto Trouble 230

Locating Short Circuits 433

Location of Spark Plugs 106

Location of Troubles in Starting

Systems 422

Locomobile-Bosch Double Sys-
tem, Wiring of 177

Lodestone, Nature of 33

Low Tension Coil 128

Low Tension Igniter Plate .... 128
Low Tension Ignition System. . . 126

Low Tension Magneto 43

Low Tension Magneto Construc-
tion 45

Low Tension Magneto Faults.. 228'

Magnet, Bar 36

Magnetic Circuits 36

Magnetic Plug System 223

Magnetic Switch, Westinghouse 408

Magnetic Vane Type Meter 63

Magnetic Zone 35

Magnetism, Fundamentals Out-
lined 32

Magnetism, Principles of 32

Magnetism, Relation to Elec-
tricity 37

Magnetism, Simple Experiments

in 33

Magnetizing by Contact 36

Magnetizing by Electrical Coil. . 37

Magnetizing by Induction 37

516

Index

PAQB

Magnetizing Iron or Steel 36

Magneto Action, Basie Prin-
ciples of 38

Magneto Armature 40

Magneto Brushes 42

Magneto, Essential Parts of . • • • 40

Magneto Field Magnets.. 42

Magneto, Ford 53

Magneto for Ford Oars 212

Magneto for Eight Cylinder En-
gines 208

Magneto for One Oylinder 186

Magneto for Twelve Oylinder

Engines 210

Magneto Generator Oonstruction 185
Magneto Ignition Systems, Tim-
ing 244

Magneto Installation 240

Magneto Trouble, Locating 230

Magneto Troubles, High Ten-
sion 229

Magneto Troubles, Low Ten-
sion 228

Magneto Windings 42

Magnets, Forms of 35

Magnets, Horseshoe 36

Master Vibrator, Function of. . 119
Master Vibrator, How Wired.. 119
Measuring Instruments, Elec-
trical 60

Mercury Arc Rectifier 150

Mercury Arc Bectifier, How it

Works 150

Methods of Electrical Ignition. . 67

Motor autch, Delco 320

Motor Driven Horns. ••.««•••• 473

Motor Generator, Delco 314

Motor Generator, XT. S. L 285

Motor Winding, Grounded 448

Motoring Delco Generator. . . . 315

Moving Ooil Type Meter 60

Moving Iron Type Meter 60

National-Bemy System 402

Nature of Electricity 17

Non- Vibrator Distributor Sys-
tems 120

Northeast Lighting and Starting

System 361

Northeast Motor Generator 369

Northeast Universal System. • . . 370

Ohm, Definition of • 57

One Oylinder Magneto 186

One Unit Ford Systems 360

One Unit System, Dyneto-Entz 330
One Unit System, Elementary. . 259

Open Circuit 22

Open Coil Winding 56

Open Generator Coil, Finding. . 448
Operation of Gray & Davis Sys-
tem 347

Oscillating Armature Magneto . . 19S
Overrunning Clutch Construc-
tion 296

Overland- Auto-Lite System.... 339
Overland-Gray & Davis System 345

Parts of Dry Cell 25

Parts of Electric Circuits 21

Parts of Gray & Davis System. . 347
Parts of Starting Systems.... 258
Pierce Arrow- Westinghouse Sys-
tem 408

Plate Polarity, Determining. . . . 147

Plugs for Two-Spark Ignition.. Ill

Plunger and Solenoid Type. .•• 62

Potential, Definition of 19

Power Transmission by Entz

System 488

Priming Plugs 107

Index

517

PAQB

Principles of Magnetism 32

Protective Circuit Breaker, Ac-
tion of 325

Bear Signal, Electrically Oper-
ated 476

Becharging Weak Magnets 235

Bectifier, Electrolytic 149

Bectifier, Mercury Arc 150

Bectifier, Wagner 153

Bectifier, Westinghouse 486

Beduction Gearing, Why Used. . 289
Begulation of Simms-Huff Sys-
tem 385

Begulator Cutout, Gray & Davis 359
Bemedies for Loss of Capacity,

Storage Cells 145

Bemy Closed Circuit Battery

System 124

Bemy Dual Ignition System .... 214
Bemy Generator Test, Simple . . 462

Bemy Ignition Generator 400

Bemy-Oakland 32 System 399

V^my Starting, Lighting and

Ignition Systems 397

Bemy Starting Motor Test 463

Homy System Troubles 460

Bemy Two- Armature System... 402

Bepaired Magneto, Testing 238

Bepairing Storage Battery 464

Besistance Unit, Delco 94

Boiler Clutch, Why Used 284

Boiler Contact Timers, Troubles

in 172

Botary Converter Set for Charg-
ing 148

Bules for Care of Storage Bat-
tery 139

Bushmore Starting Motor 282

Safety Spark Gap, Function of. . 196
Bcfety Switch, Autonaatic 484

PAQB

Scale Bea dings, Delco Volt- Am-
meter 444

Secondary Battery 28

Secondary Distributor, Construc-
tion of • 80

Sediment in Battery, Bemoval of 145

Series Wound Dynamo 54

Short Circuit, How Located.... 433
Shorted Generator Coil, Finding 448

Shunt Wound Dynamo 54

Signs, Symbols and Abbrevia-
tions 64

Silent Chain for Generator Drive 290

Simms Duplex System 218

Simms-Huff Motor Generator

Begulation 385

Simms-Huff Single Unit System 384

Simple Electric Battery 24

Simple Ignition System, Ele-
ments of 69

Simple Low Tension Magneto . . 198

Single Wire Vs. Two Wire 276

Six Cylinder Distributor System 117
Spacing Magneto Distributor

Segments 187

Spark Gap of Plugs " 104

Spark Gap, Setting 104

Spark Plug Faults 163

Spark Plug Gaps, Adjustment

of 165

Spark Plug Location 106

Spark Plugs, Types of 112

Spark Plugs With Primer 107

Splitdorf -Dixie Magneto 205

Splitdorf Dual Ignition System 214

Stand for Carboys 149

Starting Battery, Care of 438

Starting Gearing and Clutches. . 291
Starting Motor, Function of... 267

Starting Motor, Bushmore 282

Starting Motors, Troubles in . . . 426
Starting Switch Construction. . 304
Starting Switch, Use of 273

518

Index

PAGE

Starting System Efficiency 280

Starting Systems^ Classification

of 265

Starting Systems, Locating

Troubles in 422

Static or Frictional Electricity 18

Storae;e Battery Action 29

Storage Battery Charging 141

Storage Battery Construction.. 28
Storage Battery, Details of Con-
struction 138

Storage Battery Defects 137

Storage Battery, Edison 157

Storage Battery, Eepairing 464

Storage Battery, Rules for Care

of 139

Storage Battery Testing 139

Storage Battery, Use in Starting

System 265

Storage Battery, Winter Care of 161

Stray Magnetic Field 178

Sulphating, Cure for 147

Switches and Current Control-
ling Devices 299

Switch, Function of in Circuit. . 22
Symptoms of Starting Trouble . . 424

Table of Charging Rates 144

Test if Cranking Action is Weak 452

Test Lamp, Use of 425

Test Points, Delco 445

Testing Dry Cells 135

Testing Recharged Magnets... 238

Testing Repaired Magneto 238

Testing Storage Battery 139

Testing with Delco Volt-Am-
meter 443

Tests for Defective Windings.. 447
Thermostatic Circuit Breaker. . . 122

Timer, Atwater-Kent 82

"^imer, Ball Bearing 82

PAGE

Timer, Definition of 77

Timer for Delco System 89

Timer, Short Contact 82

Timer Troubles and Remedies.. 171
Timers and Distributors, Func-
tion of 77

Timers, Arrangement of Con-
tacts in 81

Timers, Construction of 78

Timers, for Multiple Cylinders. . 79
Timers, for One Cylinder Igni-
tion 79

Timing Battery Ignition 181

Timing Delco Ignition Distribu-
tor 99

Timing Magneto Ignition 244

Tracing Gray k Davis Current

Flow 352

Transformer Coil-Magneto Sys-
tem 43

Transformer Coil-Magneto Sys-
tems 213

Transformer Coil Wiring 191, 192

Troubles in Dyneto System .... 453

Troubles in Remy System .... 460
Troubles in Starting Systems,

Location of 422

Troubles with Delco System. . . . 442

Tulite Bulbs 499

Two-Spark Ignition 219

Two-Spark Ignition, Plugs for.. Ill

Two-Unit System, Elementary. . 262

Type of Battery for Starting. . 276

Types of Induction Coils 72

Typical Battery Ignition Sys-
tems 115

Typical Lighting System 491

Typical Magneto Forms, Use of 239

Universal System, Northeast.. 370
Use of Test Lamp 425

Index

519

PAGE

Use of Test Points 445

XJ. S. L.-Jeffery System 419

U. S. L. Motor Generator 285

Vibrator of Coil, Action of . . . . 70

Vibrator Points, Cleaning 169

Vibrators, Adjusting 169

Volt, Definition of 56

Voltage Eegulator, Delco 322

Voltage Eegulator, Bijur 374

Voltmeter Test, Cranking Ac-
tion 452

Vulcan Electric Gearshift 476

Vulcanizers, Low Voltage Elec-

. trie 485

Wagner Eectifier 153

Ward-Leonard Switch 305

Water Proof Spark Plug 109

Watt, Definition of 59

Weak Magnets, Eecharging. . . . 235

PAQB

Westinghouse Magnetic Switch 408
Westinghouse-F. I. A. T. Pinion

Shift 413

Westinghouse Ignition Unit .... 100

Westinghouse Motors 286

Westinghouse Eectifier 486

Westinghduse Starting Mbtors.. 406

Westinghouse System Parts 412

Westinghouse Systems 405

White One Unit System 334

Why Current Flows 18

Winding Dynamos 54

Windings of Inductive Coils... 69
Winter Care of Storage Bat-
teries 161

Wiring Diagram, Ford 117

Wiring Dry Cells 25

Wiring, Faults in 431

Wiring of Delco Ignition 88

Wiring of Westinghouse Unit . . 101
Wiring Troubles 173

Zone of Magnetic Influence.... S5

ADDED TO 1917 EDITION

Wagner-Saxon Circuits 499

Wagner-Studebaker Circuits 50^

1919

CA TALOGUE

of the Latest and Best

Practical and Mechanical Books

Including Automobile and Aviation Book$

PRACTICAL BOOKS FOR PRACTICAL MEN

ELack Book in this Catalogue is written by an
Ejcpert and is written so you can understand it

PUBLISHED BY

The Norman W. Henley Publishing Co

2 West 45tfa Street, New York, U. S. A.

E$ttMuh»d 1890
Anj Book in dua Catalogue ••nt prepaid on receipt of price

INDEX

PAGE

Air Brakes 26, 29

Arithmetic 16, 30, 40

Automobile Books 3, 4, 5, 6

Automobile Oarburetors

Automobile Charts

Automobile lotion Systems

Automobile Liighting

Automobile Questions and Answers .

Automobile Repairing

Automobile Starting Svst-ems

Automobile Trouble Chart

Automobile Welding

Aviation 7,

Aviation Chart

Bevel Gear

Boiler Room Chart

Brazing

Cams •

Carburetion Trouble Chart

Carburetors . 5 Coke

ChangeGear. 24 Combustion . . .
Charts. . .8, 9, 10 Compressed Air

Coal 21,27 Concrete

Concrete for Farm Use

Concrete for Shop Use

Cosmetics. . . 35 I Dictionary

Cyclecars ... 61 Dies 14,

Drawing 16,

Drawing for Plumbers

Drop Forging

Dynamo Building

Electric Bells

Electric Switchboards 17,

Electric Toy Making

Electric Wiring 18,

Electricity ; 16, 17, 18, 19, 20

E-T Air Brake 29

•* Everyday Engineering " 30

Factory Management 21

Ford Automobile 3

Ford Trouble Chart 9

Formulas and Recipes 37

Fuel 27

Gas Engine Construction 23

Gas Engines. 22, 23

Gas Tractor 42

Gearing and Cams 24

Heating 40

High Frequency Apparatus 20

Horap Power Chart 39

Hot Water Heating 40, 41

House Wiring 18

Hydraulics 24

Ice 24

Ignition Systems 5

Ignition Trouble Chart 7

India Rubber ., 38

Interchangeable Manufacturing .... 29

Inventions 25

Knots 25

PAOB

11,12,13,14
13
13
14
15
16
35
15
16
20
19
17
19

Lathe Work

Link Motions

Liquid Air

Locomotive Boilers

Locomotive Breakdowns

Locomotive Engineering. . . .26, 27, 28,

Machinist Books 29, 30, 31,

Manual Training

Marine Engineering

Marine Gasoline Engines

Mechanical Drawing

Mechanical Movements

Pattern Making

Perfumery

Perspective

Plumbing 35,

Producer Gas . .

on Auto-

25
27
26
27
27
29
32
33
33
23
16
31
34
35
15
36
23
15

4
40
19
28
10
37

Refrigeration 24

Repauing Automobiles 4

Rope Work 25

Rubber 38

Rubber Stamps 38

Saw Filing 38

Saws, Management of 38

Sheet Metal Works. 14, 15

Shop Construction 21

Shop Management 21

Shop Practice 21

Shop Tools 32

Sketching Paper 16

Soldering 8

Splices and Rope Work 25

Metal Work 14, 15

Mining 34

Model Making 32
Motorcycles . 6

Patents 25

Punches

Questions and Answers
mobile

Questions on Heating
adio

Railroad Accidents

Railroad Charts

Recipe Book

Steam Engineering 38, 39, 40

Steam Heating 40, 41

Steel 41

Storage Batteries 20

Submarine Chart lo

Switch Boards 17, 19

Tapers 25

Telegraphy, Wireless 19

Telephone 19 I Tool Making. 29

Thread Cutting 30 | Toy Making. 17

Tractive Power Chart 10

Tractor, Gas.. . 23

Train Rules 28

Turbines 42

Walschaert Valve Gear
Waterproofing

Welding

Wireless Telegraphy ...*... 19, 20

Wiring 18, 19

Wiring Diagrams 17

Valve Setting
Ventilation . .

27
40
29
14
5

XXXVOUIM.\^UO U%J TTXXIUB i Q, J.J^

Knots 25 Wiring Diagrams 17

Any of these books promptly sent prepaid to any address

in the world on receipt of price.

How to remit.— ^By Postal Money Order, Express Money Order,

Bank Draft or Registered Letter.

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

AUTOMOBILES AND MOTORCYCLES

THE MODERN GASOLINE AUTOMOBILE— ITS DESIGN, CONSTRUC-
TION, MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR* By Victor W. Pag6, M.E.

The latest and most complete treatise on the Gasoline Automobile ever issued. Written
in simple language by a recognized authority, familiar with every branch of the auto«
mobile industry. Free from technical terms. Everything is explained so simply
that anyone of avera!ge intelligence may gain a comprehensive Knowledge of the
gasoline automobile. The information is up-to-date and includes, in addition to an
exposition of principles of construction and description of all types of automobiles and
their components, valuable money-saving hints on the care and operation of motor-
cars propelled by internal combustion engines. Among some of the subjects treated
might be mentioned: Torpedo and other symmetrical body forms designed to reduce
air resistance; sleeve valve, rotary valve and other types of silent motors; increasing
tendency to favor worm-gear power -transmission; umversal application of iptiagneto

Snition; development of automobile electric-lifting systems; block motors; under-
ung chassis; application of practical self-starters; long stroke and offset cylinder
motors; latest automatic lubrication systems; silent chains for valve operation and
change-speed gearing; the use of ft^nt wheel brakes and many other detail refinements.
By a careful study of the pages of this book one can gain practical knowledge of auto-
mobile construction that will save time, money and worry. The book tells you just
what to do, how and when to do it. Nothing has been omitted, no detail hsts been
slighted. Every part of the automobile, its equipment, accessories, tools, supplies,
spare parts necessary, etc., have been discussed comprehensively. If you are or
intend to become a motorist, or are in any way interested in the modem Gasoline
Automobile, this is a book you cannot afford to be without. Over 1,000 pages —
and more than 1,000 new and specially made detail illustrations, as well as many full-
page and double-page plates, showing all parts of the automobile. Including 12 large
folding plates. Price $8.50

WHAT IS SAID OP THIS BOOK:
**It is the best book on the Automobile seen up to date." — ^J. H. Pile. Associate Editor
Automobile Trade Journal.

"Every Automobile Owner has use for a book of this character." — Tfie Tradesman.

"This book is superior to any treatise heretofore published on the subject." — TliB
Inventive Age,

"We know of no other volume that is so complete in all its d^)artments, and in which
the wide field of automobile construction with its mechanical intricacies is so plaiiily
handled, both in the text and in the matter of illustrations." — The Motorist.

"The book is very thorough, a careful examination failing to disclose any point in
connection with tne automobile, its care and repair, to have been overlooked. "^-
Iron Age.

"Mr. Pag6 has done a gr^t work, and benefit to the Automobile Field." — ^W. O,
Hasford, Mgr. Y. M. C. A. Automobile School, Boston, Mass.

"It is just the kind of a book a motorist needs if he wants to understand his car.**—*
American Thresherman.

THE MODEL T FORD CAR, ITS CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION AND

REPAIR, INCLUDING THE FORD FARM TRACTOR. By Victor W.

Pag£, M.E.

This is a complete instruction book. All parts of the Ford Model T Car are described
and illustrated; the construction is fully described and operating principles made
clear to everyone. Every Ford owner needs this practical book. You don't have to
guess about the construction or where the trouble is, as it shows how to take all parts
apart and how to locate and fix all faults. The writer, Mr. Pag6. has operated a Ford
car for four years and writes from actual knowle^e. Among the contents are:
1. The Ford Car. Its Parts and Their Functions. 2. The Engine and Auxiliary
Groups. How the Engine Works — The Fuel Supply System — The Carbtiretor —
Making the Ignition Spark— Cooling and Lubrication. 3. Details of Chassis.
Change Speed Gear-^Power Transmission — Differential Gear Action — Steering Gear
— ^Front Axle — Frame and Springs — Brakes. 4. How to Drive and Care for the Ford.
The Control System Explamed — Starting the Motor — Driving the Car — ^Locating
Roadside Troubles — Tire Repairs — Oiling the Chassis — ^Winter Care of Car. 6. Sys-
tematic Location of Troubles and Remedies. Faults in Engine — Faults in Carburetor

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

— Ignition Troubles — Cooling and Lubrication Ssrstem Defects — Adjustment of
Transmission Gear — General Chassis BeiMhirs. The Ford Tractor and Tractor con-
version sets and Genuine Ford Tractor. 106 illustrations. 310 pages. Two large
folding plates. Price 91.00

AUTOMOBILE REPAnUNG MADE EASY. By Victor W. Paq£, M.E.

A comprehensiYe, practical exposition of every phase of modem automobile repairing
practice. Outlines every process incidental: to motor car restoration. Gives plans for
workshop construction, suggestions for equipment, power needed, machinerv and tools
necessary to carry on the business sucoessnilly. Tells how to overhaul and repair all
parts of all automobiles. Everything is explained so simply that motorists and students
can acquire a full working knowledge of automobile repairing. This work starts with
the en^ne. then considers carburetion, ignition, cooling and lubrication systems. The
clutch, change speed gearing and transmission system are considered in detail. Ckxntains
instructions for repairing all tsrpes of axles, steering gears and other chassis parts.
Many tables, short cuts in ilgunng and rules of practice are given for the mechuiic.
Explains fully valve and magneto timing, "tuning" engines, systematic location of
trouble, repair of ball and roller bearings, shop kinks, first aid to injured and a multi-
tude of subjects of interest to all in the garage and repair business.

This book contains special instructions on electric starting, lighting and ignition systems.

tire repairing and rebuilding, autogenous welding, brating and soldering, heat treatment of
steel, latest timing practice, eight and to^/w-q/Zmder motors, etc. 5^x8* Cloth. 1056
pages, 1,000 illustrations. 11 folding plates. Price. ..... • 98.50

steel, latest Hming practice, eight and twetve-cyl*^^ motors, etc, 5^x8* Cloth. 105<
ions. 11 folding plates. Price. . .

WHAT IS SAID OF THIS BOOK:

••

'Automobile Repairing Made Easy ' is the best book on the subject I have ever seen
and the only book I ever saw that is of any value in a garage." — ^^red Jeffrey, Martins-
burg. Neb.

*'I wish to thank you for sending me a copy of 'Automobile Repairing Made Easy.' I
do not think it could be excelled." — S. W. Gisriel. Director of Instruction, Y. M. C. A.,
Philadelphia. Pa.

OUESTIONS AND ANSWERS RELATING TO MODERN AUTOMOBILE
CONSTRUCTION, DRIVING AND REPAIR. By VicroE W. Pag6, M.E.

A practical self-instructor for students, mechanics and motorists, consisting of thirty-
seven lessons in the form of questions and answers, written with special reference to the
requirements of the non-technical reader desiring easily understood, explsuiatory
matter relating to all branches of automobiling. The subject-matter is absolute^
correct and explained in simple language. If you can't answer all of the following
questions, you need this work. The answers to these and nearly 2000 more are to
be found in its pages. Give the name of all important parts of an automobile and
describe their functions? Describe action of latest types of kerosene carburetors?
What is the difference between a "double" ignition system and a "dual" ignition

3rstem7 Name parts of an induction coil? How are valves timed? What is an
ectric motor starter and how does it work? What are advantages of worm, drive
gearing? Name all important types of ball and roller bearings? What is a *' three-
quarter" floating axle? What is a two-speed axle? What is the Vulcan electric gear
shift? Name the causes of lost power In automobiles? Describe s^ noises due to
deranged mechanism and give causes? How can you adjust a carburetor by the
color of the exhaust gases? What causes ''popping in the carburetor? What tools
and supplies are needed to equip a car? How do you drive various makes of cars?
What £s a differential lock and where is it used? Name different systems of wire
wheel construction, etc. , etc. A popular work at a popular price. 5 Mi x 7 H • Cloth.
eso pages, 350 illustrations, 3 folding plates. Price 92.00

WHAT IS SAID OP THIS BOOK:

"If you own a car — get this book." — Tfie Glassworker,

"Mr. Pag6 has the faculty of making difficult subjects plain and understandable.*'—
Bristol Press.

"We can name no writer better qualified to prepare a book of instruction on auto-
mobiles than Mr. Victor W. Page." — Sdentific American,

"The best automobile catechism that has appeared." — Automobile Topics.

*' There are few men. even with long experience, who win not find this book useful
Great pains have been taken to make it accurate. Special recommendation must be

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

given to the illustrations, which have been made specially for the work. Such ex-
cellent books as this greatly assist in fully understanding your automobile." — En"
ffineering News.

MODERN STARTING, LIGHTING AND IGNITION SYSTEMS. By Victor
W. Pag6, M.E.

This practical volume has been written with special reference to the requirements of the
non*technical reader desiring easily understood, explanatory matter, relating to all
types of automobile ignition, starting and lighting systems. It can be imderstood by
anyone, even without electrical knowledge, because elementary electrical principles are
considered before any attempt is made to discuss features of the various systems.
These basic principles are clearly stated and illustrated with simple diagrams. All the
leading systemi of starting, lighting and ignition have been described and illustraled with
Qie co-operation of the experts employed bu the manufacturers. Wiring diagrams are
shown in both technical and non-technicaTforms. All ssrmbols are fully explained. It
is a comprehensive review of modem starting and ignition system practice,- and includes
a complete exposition of storage battery construction, care and repair. All types of
starting motors, generators, magnetos, and all ignition or lighting system units are
fully explained. The systems of cars already in use as well as those that are to come
in 1919 are considered. Every person in the automobile business needs this volume.
5Mx7H- Cloth. 630 pages, 297 illustrations, 3 folding plates. Price . $2.00

GASOLINE AND KEROSENE CARBURETORS, CONSTRUCTION, IN-
STALLATION AND ADJUSTMENT. By Major Victor W. Pag6. A
New Up-to-date Book on Modem Carburetion Practicfe.

This is a simple, comprehensive, and authoritative treatise for practical men ex-
plaining all basic prinaples pertaining to carburetion, showing how liquid fuels are
vaporized and turned into gas for operatihg all types of internal combustion engines in-
tended to operate on vapors of gasoline, kerosene, benzol, and alcohol. All leading types
of carburetors are described in detail, special attention bdng given to the forms devised
to use the cheaper fuels such as kerosene. Carburetion troubles, fuel system troubles,
carburetor repairs and installation, electric primers and economizers, not spot mani-
folds and all modem carburetor developments are considered in a thorougn mannOT.
Methods of adjusting all types of carburetors are fully discussed as well as sugges-
tions for securing maximum fuel economy and obtainmg highest engine power.
This book is invaluable to repairmen, students, and motorists, as it includes the
most complete exposition on kerosene carburetors ever published. The dnkwings
showing carburetor construction are made from accurate engineering designs and
show all parts of late types of carburetors. 250 pages. 89 illustrations. . $1.50

HOW TO RUN AN AUTOMOBILE. By Victor W. Pag£.

This treatise gives concise instructions for starting and running all makes of gasoline
automobiles, now to care for them, and gives dlBtinctive features of control. De-
scribes every step for shifting gears, controlling engine, etc. Among the chapters
contained are: I. Automobile Parts and Their Functions. II. General Starting
and Driving Instructions. III. Typical 1919 Control Systems — Care of Auto-
mobiles. Thoroughly illustrated. 178 pages. 72 illustrations. Price . $1.00

THE AUTOMOBHISPS POCKET COMPANION AND EXPENSE RECORD.
By Victor W. Paq^.

This book is not only valuable as a convenient cost record, but contains much in-
formation of value to motorists. Includes a condensed digest of auto laws of all
States, a lubrication schedule, hints for care of storage battery, and care of tires,
location of road troubles, anti-freezing solutions, horse-power table, driving hints
and many useful tables and recipes of interest to all motorists. Not a technical
book in any sense of the word, Just a coDectlon of practical facts in simple language
for the every-day motorist. Convenient pocket size. Price $1.00

AUTOMOBILE WELDING WITH THE OXY-ACETYLENE FLAME.] By

M. Keith Dunham.

Explains In a simple niAT>Ti«r apparatus to be used, its care, and how to construoi
necessary shop equipment. Proceeds then to the actual welding of all automobllt

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

parts, in a maimer understandable bj every one. Gives principles never to be for-
gotten. This book is of utmost value, since the reil>lexing problems arising -when
metal is heated to a melting point are fully explained and the proper methods to
overcome them shown. 167 pages. Fully illiistrated. Price $1.25

MOTORCYCLES, SIDE CARS AND CYCLECARS, THEIR CONSTRUCTION,
MANAGEMENT AND REPAIR. By VicroB W. Pag£, M.E.

The only complete work published for the motorcyclist and cyclecarist. Describes
fully all leading types of machines, their design, construction, maintenance, operation
and repair. This treatise outlines fullv the operation of two- and four-cycle power
plants and all ignition, carburetion and lubrication systems in detail. Describes all
representative types of free engine clutches, variable speed gears and power trans-
mission systems. Gives complete instructions for operating and repairing all types.
Considers fully electric self-starting and lighting systems, all types of spring fi-ames
and springs forks and shows leading control methods. For those desirmg technical
information a complete series of tables and many formulae to assist in designing are
included. The work teUs how to figure power needed to climb grades, overcome air
resistance and attain high speeds. It snows how to select gear ratios for various
weights and powers, how to figure braking efficiency required, gives sizes of belts and
chains to transmit power safely, and shows how to design sprockets, belt pulleys, etc.
This work sdso includes complete formulae for figuring horse-power, shows how dyna-
mometer tests are made, defines relative efficiency of air- and water-cooled engines, plain
and anti-fHction bearings and many other data of a practical, helpful, engineering
nature. Remember that you get this information in addition to the practical de-
scription and instructions which alone are worth several times the price of the book.
550 pages. 350 specially made illustrations, 5 folding plates. Cloth. Price . $2.00

WHAT IS SAID OF THIS BOOK:

•* Here is a book that should be in the cycle repairer's kit." — American Blacksmith.
" The best way for any rider to thoroughly imderstand his machine, is to get a copy
of this book; it is worth many times Its price." — Pacific Motorcyclist.

AUTOMOBILE, AVIATION AND MOTORCYCLE CHARTS

AVIATION CHART— LOCATION OF AIRPLANE POWER PLANT TROUBLES
MADE EASY. By Major Victor W. Pag^, A.S., S.C.U.S.R.

A large chart outlining all parts of a typical airplane power plant, showing the points
where trouble is apt to occur and suggesting remedies for the conmion defects. In-
tended especially for aviators and aviation mechanics on school and field duty.
Price 60 cents

CHART. GASOLINE ENGINE TROUBLES MADE EASY—A CHART SHOW-
ING SECTIONAL VIEW OF GASOLINE ENGINE. Compiled by Victor
W. Pag£, M.E.

It shows clearly all parts of a typical foiir-cylinder gasoline engine of the four-cycle
type. It outlines distinctly all parts liable to give trouble and also details the de-
rangements apt to interfere with smooth engine operation.

Valuable to students, motorists, mechanics, repairmen, garagemen, automobile sales-
men, chauflTeurs, motorboat owners, motor-truck and tractor drivers, aviators, motor-
cyclists, and all others who have to do with gasoline power plants. ,
It simplifies location of all engine troubles, and while it will prove invaluable to the
novice, it can be used to advantage by the more expert. It should be on the walls of
every public and private garage, automobile repair shop, club house or school. It can
be carried in the automobile or pocket with ease, and will insure against loss of time
when engine trouble manifests Itself. •

This sectional view of engine is a complete review of all motor troubles. It is prepared
by a practical motorist for all who motor. More Information for the money tnan ever
before offered. No details omitted. Size 25x38 inches. Securely mailed on receipt
of 25 cents

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

CHART. LOCATION OF FORD ENGINE TROUBLES MADE EASY. Com-

piled by Victor W. Pag6, M.E.

This shows clear sectioDal views depicting all portions of the Ford power plant and
auxiliary groups. It outlines clearly all parts of the en^e, fuel supply system, igni-
tion group and cooling system, that are apt to give trouble, detailing all derangements
that are liable to make an engine lose power, start hard or work irregularly. This
chart is valuable to students, owners, and drivers as it simplifies location of all engine
faults. Of great advantage as an instructor for the novice, it can be used equally well
by the more expert as a work of reference and review. It can be carried in the tool-
box or pocket with ease and will save its cost in labor eliminated the first time engine
trouble manifests itself. Prepared with special reference to the average man's needs
and is a practical review of all motor troubles because it is based on the actual ex-

ferience of an automobile engineer-mechanic with the mechanism the chart describes,
t enables the non-technical owner or operator of a Ford car to locate engine de-
rangements by systematic search, guided oy easily recognized symptoms instead of by
guesswork. It makes the average owner independent of the roadside repair shop
when touring. Must be seen to be appreciated. Size 25x38 inches. Printed on
heavy bond paper. Price 26 cents

CHART. LUBRICATION OF THE MOTOR CAR CHASSIS. Compiled by

Victor W. Pag£, M.E,

This chart presents the plan view of a typical six-cylinder chassis of standard design
and all parts are clearly indicated that demand oil. aJso the -frequency with which they
must be lubricated and the kind of oil to use. A practical chart for all interested in
motor-car maintenance. Size 24x38 inches. Price 25 cents

CHART. LOCATION OF CARBURETION TROUBLES MADE EASY. Com-
piled by Victor W. PagA, M.E.

This chart shows all parts of a tsrpical pressure feed fuel supply ssrstem and gives
causes of trouble, how to locate defects and means of remedying them. Size 24x38
inches. Price 25 cents

CHART. LOCATION OF IGNITION SYSTEM TROUBLES MADE EASY.

Compiled by Victor W. Pag^, M.E.

In this diagram all parts of a typicstl double ignition system using battery and magneto
current are shown, and suggestions are given for readily finding ignition troubles and
eliminating them when found. Size 24x38 inidies. Price . . 25 cents

CHART. LOCATION OF COOLING AND LUBRICATION SYSTEM FAULTS.

Compiled by Victor W. Pag6, M.E.

This composite diagram shows a typical automobile power plant using pump circulated
water-cooling system and the most popular lubrication method. Gives suggestions
for curing all overheating and loss of power faults due to faulty action of the oiling
or cooling group. Size 24x38 inches. Price 25 cents

CHART. MOTORCYCLE TROUBLES MADE EASY. Compiled by Victor

W. Paq6, M.E.

A chart showing sectioned view of a single-cylinder gasoline engine. This chart
simplifies location of aXL power-plant troubles. A single-cylinder motor is shown for
simplicity. It outlines (ustinctly all parts liable to give trouble and also details the
derangements apt to interfere with smooth engine operation. This chart will prove
of value to all who have to do with the operation, repair or sale of motorcycles. No
details omitted. Size 30x20 inches. Price 25 cents

AVIATION

A B C OF AVIATION By Major Victor W. Pag6.

This book describes the basic principles of aviation, tells how a balloon or dirigible
is made and why it floats in the air. Describes how an airplane flies. It shows in
detail the dJLfFerent parts of an airplane, what they are and what they do. Describes

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

all types of airplanes and how they differ in construction; as well as detailing the
advantages ana disadvantages of different types of aircraft. It includes a complete
dictionary of aviation terms and clear drawings of leading airplanes. The reader
will find simple instructions for impacking, setting up, and rigging airplanes. A
full description of airplane control principles is given and methods or flying are dis-
cussed at length.

This book answers every question one can ask about modem aircraft, their con-
struction and operation. A self-educator on aviation without an equal. 275 pages.
130 specially made illustrations with 7 plates. Price $2.60

AVIATION ENGINES— DESIGN; CONSTRUCTION; REPAIR. By Major
Victor W. Pag6, A.S., S.C.U.S.R.

This treatise, written by a recognized authority on all of the practical aspects of
internal combustion enrane construction, maintenance, and repair, flUs the need as
no other book does. The matter is Ic^cally arranged; all descriptive matter is
simply expressed and copiously illustrated, so that anyone can imderstand airplane
engine operation and repair even if without previous mechanical training. Ihis
work is invaluable for anyone desiring to become an aviator or aviation mechanic.
The latest rotary types, such as the Gnome Monosoupape, and LeBhone, are fully
explained, as well as the recently developed Yee and radial t3^es. The subjects
of carburetion, ignition, cooling, and lubrication also arei:»vered in a thorough manner.
The chapters on repair and maintenance are distinctive and found in no other book
on this subject. Not a technical book, but a practical, easily understood work of
reference for all interested in aeronautical science. 576 pages. 253 illustrations.
Price, net 98.00

GLOSSARY OF AVIATION TERMS — ENGLISH-FRENCH; FRENCH-
ENGLISH. By Major Victor W. Pag6, A.S., S.C.U.S.R., and Lieut.
Paul Montariol, of the French Flying Corps.

A complete glossary of practically all terms used in aviation, having lists in both
French and English with equivalents in either language. Price, net . . $1.00

AVIATION CHART— LOCATION OF AIRPLANE POWER PLANT TROUBLES
MADE EASY. By Major Victor W. Pag6, A.S., S.C.U.S.R.

A large chart outlining all parts of a typical airplane power plant, showing the points
where trouble is apt to occur and suggesting remedies for the conunon defects. In-
tended especially for aviators and aviation mechanics on school and field duty.
Price . \ . . . 50 cents

BRAZING AND SOLDERING

BRAZING AND SOLDERING. By Jambs F. Hobart.

The only book that shows you just how to handle any job of brazing or soldering that
comes along; it tells you what mixture to use, how to make a furnace if you need one.
Full of valuable kinks. The fifth edition of this book has just been published, and to
it much new matter and a large number of tested formulaa for all kinds of solders and
fluxes have been added. Illustrated 86 cents

CHARTS

AVIATION CHART— LOCATION OF AIRPLANE POWER PLANT TROUBLES
MADE EASY. By Major Victor W. Pag£, A.S., S.C.U.S.R.

A large chart outlining all parts of a typical airplane power plant, showing the points
where trouble is apt to occur and suggesting remedies for the conunon defects.
Intended especially for aviators and aviation mechanics on school and field duty.
Price 60 cenia

•8

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

, . \

GASOLINE ENGINE TROUBLES MADE EASY—A CHART SHOWING SEC-
TIONAL VIEW OF GASOLINE ENGINE. Compiled by Victob W. Pag6.

It ahows clearly all parts of a tjrpical four-cylinder gasoline engine of the four-cyde
type. It outlines distinctly all parts liable to give trouble and also details the de*
rangements apt to interfere with smooth engine operation.

Valuable to students, motorists, mechanics, vepairmen, garagemen. automobile salee^
men, chauffeurs, motor-boat owners, motor-truck and tractor drivers, aviators, motor-
cyclists, and all others who have to do with gasoline power plants.

It simplifies location of all engine troubles, and while it will prove invaluable to the
novice, it can be used to advantage by the more expert. It should be on the walls of
every public and private garage, automobile repair shop, club house or school. It can
be carried in the automobile or pocket with ease and will insure against loss of time
when engine trouble manifests itself.

This sectional view of engine is a complete review of all motor troubles. It is pre-

gared by a practical motorist for all who motor. No details omitted. Size 25x38
iches 25 cents

LUBRICATION OF THE MOTOR CAR CHASSIS.

This chart presents the plan view of a typical six-cylinder chassis of standard design
and all parts are clearly indicated that demand oil, aJso the frequency with which they
must be lubricated and the kind of oil to use. A practical chart for all interested in
m.otor-car maintenance. Size 24x3S inches. Price ....... 26 cents

LOCATION OF CARBURETION TROUBLES MADE EASY.

This chart shows all parts of a typical pressure feed fuel supply system and gives
causes of trouble, how to lociLte defects and means of remedying them. Size 24x38
inches. Price ' 26 cents

LOCATION OF IGNITION SYSTEM TROUBLES MADE EASY.

In this chart all parts of a typical double ignition system using battery and magneto
current are shown and suggestions are given for residily finding ignition troubles and
eliminating them when found. Size 24x38 inches. Price 26 cents

LOCATION OF COOLING AND LUBRICATION SYSTEM FAULTS.

This composite chart shows a typical automobile power plant using pump circulated
water-cooling system and the most popular lubrication method. Gives suggestions
for curing aU overheating and loss uf po>vi:i- faults due to faulty action of the oiling ot
cooling group. Size 24x38 inches, i ri. e 26 cents

MOTORCYCLE TROUBLES MADE EASY— A CHART SHOWING SEC-
TIONAL VIEW OF SINGLE-CYLINDER GASOLINE ENGINE. CompUed
by Victob W. Pag6.

This chart simplifies location of all power-plant troubles, and will prove invaluable to
all who have to do with the ooeration, repair or sale of motorcycles. No details
omitted. Size 25x38 inches, trice 26 cents

LOCATION OF FORD ENGINE TROUBLES MADE EASY. Compiled by
Victor W. Pag6, M.E.

This shows clear sectional views depicting all portions of the Furd power plant and
auxiliary groups. It outlines clearly all parts of the engine, fuel supplv system.
ignlUon group and cooling system, that are apt to give trouble, detailing all derange-
ments that are liable to make an engine lose power, start hard or work irregularly. This
chart is valuable to students, owners, and drivers, as it simplifies location of all engine
faults. Of great advantage as an instructor for the novice, it can be used equally well
by the more expert as a work of reference and review. It can be carried in the tool-
box or pocket with ease and will save its cost in labor eliminated the first time engins
trouble manifests itself. Prepared with special reference to the average man's needs

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

and is a practical review of all motor troubles because it is based on the actual ex-
perience of an automobile engineer-mechanic with the mechanism the chart describes.
It enables the non-technical owner or operator of a Ford car to locate engine de-
rangements by systematic search, guided by easily recognized symptoms instead of by
guesswork. It makes the average owner independent of the roadside repair shop
when touring. Must be seen to be appreciated. Size 25x38 inches. Printed on heavy
bond paper. Price 26 cents

MODERN SUBMARINE CHART — WITH aoo PARTS NUMBERED AND
NAMED.

A cross-section view, showing (dearly and distinctly all the interior of a Submarine of
the latest type. You get more information ftom this chart, about the construction and
operation of a Submarine, than in anv other way. No details omitted — everything
iB accurate and to scale. It is absolutely correct in every detail, having been approved
by Naval Engineers. All the machinery and devices fitted in a modem Suomarine
Boat are shown, and to make the engraving more readily understood, all the features
are shown in operative form, with Oincers and Men in the act of performing the duties
assigned to them in service conditions. This CHART IS BEAIILY AN ENCYCLO-
PEDIA OF A SUBMARINE 25 cents

BOX CAR CHART.

A chart showing the anatomy of a box'car, having every part of the car numbered and
its proper name given in a reference list 25 cents

GONDOLA CAR CHART.

A chart showing the anatomy of a gondola car^ havinc every part of the car numbered
and its proper reference name given in a reference list. 25 cents

PASSENGER-CAR CHART.

A chart showing the anatomy of a passenger-car. having every part of the car numbered
and its proper name given in a reference list. 25 centa

STEEL HOPPER BOTTOM COAL CAR.

A chart showing the anatomy of a steel Hopper Bottom Goal Car, having every part
of the car numbered and Its proper name given in a reference list 25 cents

TRACTIVE POWER CHART.

A chart whereby you can find the tractive power or drawbar puU of any locomotive
without making a figure. Shows what cylinders are equal, how driving wheels and
steam pressure -affect the power. What siied engine you need to exert a given drawbar
pull or anything you desire in this line 50 cents

HORSE-POWER CHART

Shows the horse-power of any stationary engine without calculation. No matter what
the cylinder diameter of stroke, the steam pressure of cut-off, the revolutions, or
whether condensing or non-condensing, it's all there. Easy to use. accurate, and
saves time and calculations. Especially useful to engineers and designers. 50 cents

BOILER ROOM CHART. By Geo. L. Fowleb.

A chart— size 14x28 inches — showing in isometric perspective the mechanisms be-
longing in a modem boiler room. The various parts are shown broken or removed,
so that the internal construction is fully illustrated. Each part is given a reference
number, and these, with the corresponding name, are given in a glossary printed at
the sides. This chart is really a dictionary of the boiler room — ^the names of more than
200 parts being g^ven 25 cents

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

COKE

COKE— MODERN COKING PRACTICE, INCLUDING ANALYSIS OP
MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS. By J. £. Chbistopher and T. H. Byrom.

This, the standard work on the subject, has just been re-vjsed and is now issued in
two volumes. It is a practical work for those engaged in Coke manufacture and
the recovery 'of By-products. Fully illustrated with folding plates. It has been
the aim of the authors, in preparing this book, to produce one which shall be of use
and benefit to those who are associated with, or interested in, tiie modem develop-
ments of the indusjiTy. Among the chapters contained in Volume I are: Introduc-
tion. Classification of Fuels. Impurities of Coals. Coal Washing. Sampling
and Viduation of Coals, etc. Chlorific Power of Fuels. History of Coke Manu-
facture. Developments in Coke Oven Design; Recent Types of Coke Ovens.
Mechanical Appliances at Coke Ovens. Chemical and Physical Examinatian of
Coke. Volume II covers By-products. Each volume is fully illustrated, with
folding platea Price, per volume $8.00

COMPRESSED AIR

COMPRESSED AIR IN ALL ITS APPLICATIONS. By Gabdner D. Hiscox.

This is the most complete book on the subject of Air that has ever been issued, and Its
thirty-five chapters include about every phase of the subject one can think of. It may
be called an encyclopedia of compressiBd air. It is written by an expert, who, in its
665 pages, has dealt with the subject in a comprehensive manner, no phase of it being
omitted. Includes the physical prop erties of air trom a vacuum to its highest pressure,
its thermodynamics, compression, transmission and uses as a motive power, in the
Operation of Stationary and Portable Machinery, in Mining, Air Tools. Air Lifts,
Pumping of Water, Acids, and Oils; the Air Blast for Cleaning and Painting, the
Sand Blast and its Work, and the Numerous Appliances in whicn Compressed Air is
a Most Convenient and Economical Transmitter of Power for Mechanical Work.
Railway Propulsion. Refrigeration, and the Various Uses to which Compressed Air
has been applied. Includes forty-four tables of the phyrical properties of air. its
oomiuression, expansion, and. volumes required for various kinds of work, and a list
of patents on compressed air from 1876 to date. Over 500 illustrations, 5th Edition,
reused and enlarged. Cloth bound, $6.00. Half Morocco, price .... $7.50

CONCRETE

JUST PUBLISHED—CONCRETE WORKERS* REFERENCE BOOKS. A
SERIES OF POPULAR HANDBOOKS FOR CONCRETE USERS.
Prepared by A. A. Houqhton Each 60 eents

The author, in preparing this Series, has not only treated on the usual types of construction,
but explains and illustrates molds and systems that are not patented, out which are equal
in value and often superior to those restricted by patents. These molds are very easily and
cheaply constructed and embody simplicity, rapidity of operation, and the most successful
results in the molded concrete. Each of these Twelve books is fully illustrated, and the
subjects are exhaustively treated in plain English.

CONCRETE WALL FORMS. By A. A. Houghton.

A new automatic wall clamp is illustrated with working drawings. Other tjrpes of

wall forms, clamps, separators, etc.. are also illustrated and explained.

(No. 1 of Series) 60 cents

CONCRETE FLOORS AND Sn>EWALKS. By A. A. Houghton.

The molds for molding squares, hexagonal and many other styles of mosaic floor and
sidewalk blocks are fully illustrated and explained, ^o. 2 of Series) . . 60 cents

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

PRACTICAL CONCRETE SILO CONSTRUCTION. By A. A. Houghton.

Complete working drawings and speciQcations are given for several styles of concrete
silos, with illustrations of molds for monolithic and olock silos. The tables, data, and
Information presented in this book are of the utmost value in planning and constructing
all forms of concrete silos. (No. 3 of Series) 60 cents

MOLDING CONCRETE CHIMNEYS, SLATE AND ROOF TILES. By A. A.

Houghton.

The manufacture of all types of concrete slate and roof tile is fully treated. Valuable
data on all forms of reinforced concrete roofs are contained within its pages. The
construction of concrete chimneys by, block and monolithic systems, is fully illustrated
and described. A number of ornamental designs of chimney construction with molds
are shown in this valuable treatise. (No. 4 of Series.) 60 cents

MOLDING AND CURING ORNAMENTAL CONCRETE. By A. A. Houghton.

The proper proportions of cement and aggregates for various ^nishes, also the method
of thoroughly mixing and placing in the molds, are fully treated. An exhaustive
treatise on this subject that every concrete worker will find of daily use and value.
(No. 6 of Series.) . . . ; . 60 cents

CONCRETE MONUMENTS, MAUSOLEUMS AND BURIAL VAULTS. By

A. A. Houghton.

The molding of concrete monuments to imitate the most expensive cut stone is ex-
plained in this treatise, with working drawings of easily built molds. Cutting in-
scriptions and designs are also fully treated. (No. 6 of Series.) ... 60 cents

MOLDING CONCRETE BATHTUBS, AQUARIUMS AND NATATORIUMS.

By A. A. Houghton.

Simple molds and instruction are given for molding many styles of concrete bathtubs,
swimming-pools, etc. These molds are easily built and permit rapid and successful
work. (No. 7 of Series.) . . . ' 60 cents

CONCRETE BRIDGES, CULVERTS AND SEWERS. By A. A. Houghton.

A number of ornamental concrete bridges with illustrations of molds are given. A
collapsible center or core for bridges, culverts and sewers is fully illustrated with de-
tailed instructions for building. (No. 8 of Series.) 60 cents

CONSTRUCTING CONCRETE PORCHES. By A. A. Houghton.

A number of designs with working drawings of molds are fully explained so any one
can easily construct different styles of ornamental concrete porches without the pur-
chase of expensive molds. (No. 9 of Series.) 60 cents

MOLDING CONCRETE FLOWER-POTS, BOXES, JARDINIERES, ETC.

By A. A. Houghton.

The molds for producing many originsd designs of flower-pots, urns, flower-boxes,
Jardinieres, etc., are fully illustrated and explained, so the worker can easily construct
and operate same. (No. 10 of Series.) 60 cents

MOLDING CONCRETE FOUNTAINS AND LAWN ORNAMENTS. By A.

A. Houghton.

The molding of a number of designs of lawn seats, curbing, hitching posts, pergolas, sun
dials. and other forms of ornamental concrete for the ornamentation of lawns and gar-
dens, is fully illustrated and described. (No. 11 of Series) 60 cents

CONCRETE FROM SAND MOLDS. By A. A. Houghton.

A Practical Work treating on a process which has heretofore been held as a trade secret
by the few who possessed it, and which will successfully mold every and any class of
ornamental concrete work. The process of molding concrete with sand molds is of

CATALOGUE OF viOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

\ —

the utmost practical value, possessing the manifold advantages of a low cost of molds,
the ease and rapidity of operation, perfect details to all ornamental designs, density
and increased strength of the concrete, perfect curing of the work without attention
and the easy removal of the molds regardless of any imdercutting the design may have.
192 pages. Fully illustrated. Price $2.00

ORNAMENTAL CONCRETE WITHOUT MOLDS. By A. A. Houghton.

The process for maJdng ornamental concrete without molds has long he&ti. held as a
secret, and now, for the first time, this process is given to the puolic. The book
reveals the secret and is the only book published which explains a simple, practical
method whereby the concrete worker is enabled, by employing wood and metal tem-
plates of different designs, to mold or model in concrete any Cornice, Archivolt,
Column, Pedestal, Base Cap, Urn or Pier in a monolithic form — aright upon the job.
These may be molded in units or blocks, and then built up to suit the spedflcations
demanded. This work is fully illustrated, with detailed engravings. Price . $2.00

CONCRETE FOR THE FARM AND IN THE SHOP. 'By H. Colin
Campbell, C.E., E.M. ,

• Concrete for the Farm and in the'Shop" is a new book from cover to cover, illustrat-
iDg and describing in plain, simple language many of the numerous applications of
concrete within the range of the home worker. Among the subjects treated are:

Principles of reinforcing ; methods of protecting concrete so as to insure proper harden-
ing; home-made mixers; mixing by hand and machine; form construction, described
and illustrated by drawings and photographs; construction of concrete walls and
fences; concrete fence posts; concrete gate posts; comer posts; clothes line posts;
grape arbor posts; tanks; troughs; cisterns; hog wallows; feeding floors ahd Dam-
yard pavements ; foundations ; well curbs and platforms ; indoor floors ; sidewalks ; steps ;
concrete hotbeds and cold fk-ames; concrete slfkb roofs; walls for buildings; repairing
leaks in tanks and cisterns; and all topics associated with these subjects as bearing
upon securing the best results ftom concrete are dwelt upon at sufBcient length in plain
every-day English so that the inexperienced person desiring to imdertake a piece of
concrete construction can, by following the directions set forth in this book, secure 100
per cent success every time. A number of convenient and practical tables for estimating
quantities, and some practical examples, are also given. (5x7). 149 pages, 51 il-
lustrations. Price $1.00

POPULAR HANDBOOK FOR CEMENT AND CONCRETE USERS. By

Mtron H. Lewis.

This is a concise treatise of the principles and methods employed in the manufacture
and use of cement in all classes of modem works. The author has brought together
in this work all the salient matter of mterest to the user of concrete and its many
diversifled products. The matter is presented in logical and systematic order, clearly
written, fully illustrated and free from involved mathematics. Everything of value to
the concrete user is given, inc uding kinds of cement employed in construction, concrete
architecture, inspection and testing, waterproofing, coloring and painting, rules, tables,
working and cost data. The book comprises thirty-three chapters, as follows:

Introductory. Kinds of Cements and How They are Made. Properties. Testing
and Requirements of Hydraulic Cement. Concrete and its Properties. Sand, Broken
Stone and Gravel for Concrete. How to Proportion the Materials. How to Mix
and Place Concrete. Forms of Concrete Construction. The Architectural and Artistic
Possibirties of Concrete Concrete Residences Mortars, Plasters and Stucco, and
How to Use them. The Artistic Treatment of Concrete Surfaces. Concrete Building
Blocks. The Making of Ornamental Concrete. Concrete Pipes, Fences, Posts, etc
Essential Features and Advantages of Reenforced Concrete. How to Design Reen-
forced Concrete Beams, Slabs and Columns. Explanations of the Methods and
Principles in Designing Reenforced Concrete Beams and Slabs. Systems of Reen-
forcement Employed. Reenforced Concrete In Factory amd General Building Con-
stmction. Concrete in Foundation Work. Concrete Retaining Walls, Abutments
and Bulkheads. Concrete Arches and Arch Bridges. Concrete Beam and Girder
Bridges. Concrete in Sewerage and Drainage Works. Concrete Tanks, Dams and
Reservoirs. Concrete Sidewalks. Curbs and Pavements. Concrete in Railroad Con-
stmctlons. The Utility of Concrete on the Farm. The Waterproofing of Concrete
Structure. Grout of Liquid Concrete and Its Use. Inspection of Concrete Work. Cost
of Concrete Work. Some of the special features of the book are: 1. The Attention
Paid to the Artistic and Architectural Side of Concrete Work. 2. The Authoritative

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

Treatment of the Problem of Waterproofing Concrete. 3. An Excellent Summary of
the Rules to be Followed in Concrete Construction. 4. The Valuable Cost Data and
UaefUl Tables given. A valuable Addition to the Library of Every Cement and
Concrete User. Price 98.00

WHAT IS SAID OP THIS BOOK:

"The field of Concrete Construction is well covered and the matter contained is well
within the understanding of any person." — Engineering-Contracting.

"Should be on the bookshelves of every contractor, engineer, and architect In the
land."— J^oliano/ Builder.

UTATERPROOFING CONCRETE. By Myron H. Lewis.

Modem Methods of Waterproofing Concrete and Other Structures. A condensed
statement of the Principles, Rules, and Precautions to be Observed in Waterproofing
and Dampprooflng Structures and Structural Materials. Paper binding. Illustrated.
Price . . • 4 60 cents

DICTIONARIES

STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY. By T. O'Conob Sloane.

AVUTION TERMS— ENGLISH-FRENCH: FRENCH-ENGLISH. By Major
Victor W. Pag6, A.S., S.C.U.S.R., and Lieut. Paul Montariol of the
French Flying Corps.

A complete glossary of practically all terms used in aviation, having lists In both
French and EngUsh with equivalents in either language. Include all words in
common use. A complete, well illustrated volume intended to fadUtate conversa-
tion between EngUsh-trpeaklng and French aviators. The lists are confined to essen-
tials, and special folding plates are Included to show all important airplane parts.
The lists are divided into four sections: 1. Flying Field Terms. 2. The Airplane.
3. The Engine. 4. Tools and Shop Terms. Should be in every aviator's and
mechanic's kit. Price $1.00

DIES— METAL WORK

DIES: THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND USE FOR THE MODERN WORKING
OF SHEET METALS. By J. V. Woodworth.

A most useful book, and one which should be in the hands of all engaged In the press
working of metals; treatino; on the Designing, Constructing, and Use of Tools, Fixtives
and Devices, together with the manner in which they should be used in the Power
Press, for the cheap and rapid production of tiie great variety of sheet-metal articles
now in use. It is designed as a guide to the production of Eiieet-metal parts at the
minimum of cost with the maximum of output. The hardening and tempering of
Press tools and the classes of work which may be produced to the best advantage by
the use of dies in the power press are fully treated. Its 505 illustrations show dies,
press fixtures and sheet-metal working devices, the descriptions of which are so clear and
practical that all metal-working mechanics will be able to understand how to design,
construct and use them. Many of the dies and press fixtures treated were either
constructed by the author or under his supervision. Others were built by skilful
mechanics and are in use in large sheet-metal establishments and machine shops.
<6th Edition. Price 98.60

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

PUNCHES, DDES AND TOOLS FOR MANUFACTURING IN PRESSES. By
J. V. Wood WORTH.

This work is a companion volume to the author's elementary work entitled "Dies, Their
Construction and Use." It does not go into the details of die-making to the extent of
the authot's previous book, but gives a comprehensive review of the tield of Oi««pations
carried on by presses. A large part of the information given has been drawn from the
author s personal experience. It might well be termed an Encyclopedia of Die-Making,
Punch-Making, Die-Sinking, Sheet-Metal Working, and Making of Special Tools, Sub-
presses, Devices and Mechanical Combinations for Punching, Cutting, Bending, Porm-
mg, Piercing, Drawing, Compressing and Assembling Sheet-Metal Parts, and also Arti-
cles of other Materials in Machine Tools. 2d Edition. Price $4.5 O

DROP FORGING, DDE-SINKING AND MACHINE-FORMING OF STEEL.

By J. V. WOODWORTH.

This is a practical treatise on Modem Shop Practice, Processes, Methods. Machine
Tools, and Details treating on the Hot and Cold Machine-Forming of Steel and Iron
Into Finished Shapes; together with Tools, Dies, and Machinery involved in the
manufacture of Duplicate Forgings and Interchangeable Hot and Cold Pressed Parts
from Bar and Sheet Metal. This book fills a demand of long standing for information
regarding drop-forgings, die-sinking and machine-forming of steel and the shop
practicemvolved, as it actually exists in the modem drop-forging shop. The processes
of die-sinking and force-making, which are thoroughly described and illustrated in this
admirable work, are rarely to oe foimd explained in such a clear and concise manner
as is here set forth. The process of die-sinking relates to the engraving or sinking of
the female or lower dies, such as are used for drop-forgings, hot and cold machine
forging, swedging and the press working of metals. The process of force-making
relates to the engraving or raising of the male or upper dies used in producing the
lower dies for the press-forming and machine-forging of duplicate parts of metal.

In addition to the arts above mentioned the book contains explicit information re-
garding the drop-forging and hardening plants, design!&, conditions, equipment, drop
hammers, forging machines, etc., machine forging, hydraulic forgine. autogenous
welding and shop practice. The book contains eleven chapters, and the information
contained in these chapters is just what will prove most valuable to the forged-metal
worker. All operations described in the work are thoroughly illustrated by means of

Serspective half-tones and outline sketches of the machinery employed. 300 detailed
lustrations. Price $8.0O

DRAWING— SKETCHING PAPER

PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. By Richards and Colvin.

Shows just how to make all kinds of mechanical drawings In the only practical per-
spective isometric. Makes everything plain so that any mechanic can understand
a sketch or drawing in this way. Saves time in the drawing room, and mistakes in the
shops. Contains practical examples of various classes of work. 4th Edition. 60 centt

LINEAR PERSPECTIVE SELF-TAUGHT. By Herman T. C. Kraus.

This work gives the theory and practice of linear perspective, as used in architectural,
engineering and mechanical drawings. Persons taking up the study of the subject
by themselves will be able, by the use of the instruction given, to readily grasp the
subject, and by reasonable practice become good perspective draftsmen. The arrange-
ment of the book is good; the plate is on the left-hand, while the descriptive text
follows on the opposite page, so as to be readily referred to. The drawiii^s are on
sufficiently large scale to show the work clearly and are plainly figured. There is
included a self-explanatory chart which gives all information necessary for the thorough
understanding of perspective. This chart alone is worth many times over the price of
the book. 2d Revised and enlarged Edition. $2.60

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

SELF-TAUGHT MECHANICAL DRAWING AND ELEMENTARY MACHINE
DESIGN. By F. L. Sylvester, M.E., Draftsman, with additions by Crik
Oberg, associate editor of ''Machinery."

This is a practical treatise on Mechanical Drawing and Machine Design, comprising
the ilrst principles of geometric and mechanical drawing, workshop mathematics,
mechanics, strength of materials and the calculations and design of macliine details.
The author's aim has been to adapt this treatise to the requirements of the practical
mechanic and young draftsman and to present the matter in as clear and concise a
manner as possible. To meet the demands of this class of students, practically all the
important elements of machine deedgn have been dealt with, and in addition algebraic
formulas have been explained, and the elements of 'trigonometry treated in the manner
best suited to the needs of the practical man. The book is divided into 20 chapters,
and in arranging the material, mechanical drawing, pure and simple, has been taken
up first, as a thorough imderstanding of the principles of representing objects facilitates
the further study of mechanical subjects. This is followed by the mathematics neces-
sary for the solution of the problems in machine design which are presented later, and
a practical introduction to theoretical mechanics and the strength of materials. The
viudous elements entering into machine design, such as cams, gears, sprocket-wheels,
cone pulleys, bolts, screws, couplings, clutches, shafting and fly-wheels, have been
treated in such a way as to make poffiible the use of the work as a text-book for a
continuous course of study. It is easily comprehended and assimilated even bv
students of limited previous training. 330 pages, 215 engravings. Price . . 98.50

A NEW SKETCHING PAPER.

A new specially ruled paper to enable you to make sketches or drawings in isometric
perspective without any figuring or fussing. It is being used for shop details as well
as for assembly drawings, as it makes one sketch do the work of three, and no workman
can help seeing just what is wanted. Pads of 40 sheets, 6x9 inches, d6 cents. Pads
of 40 sheets. 9x12 inches. 50 cents; 40 sheets, 12x18, Price $1.00

ELECTRICITY

ARITHMETIC OF ELECTRICITY. By Prof. T. O'Conor Sloanb.

A practical treatise on electrical calculations of all kinds reduced to a series of rules, all
of the simplest forms, and involving only ordinary arithmetic; each rule illustrated
by one or more practical problems, with aetailed solution of each one. This book is
classed among the most useful works published on the science of electricity, covering
as it does the mathematics of electricity in a manner that will attract the attention
of those who are not familiar with algebraical formulas. 20th Edition. 160 pages.
Price 91.00

COMMUTATOR CONSTRUCTION. By Wm. Baxter, Jr.

The business end of any dynamo or motor df the direct current type is the commutator.
This book goes into the designing, building, and maintenance of commutators, shows
how to locate troubles and how to remedy them; everyone who fusses with dynamos
needs this. 4th Edition 86 cents

DYNAMO BUILDING FOR AMATEURS, OR HOW TO CONSTRUCT A
FIFTY-WATT DYNAMO. By Arthur J. Weed, Member of N. Y. Electrical
Society.

A practical treatise showing in detail the construction of a small dynamo or motor, the
entire machine work of which can be done on a small foot lathe. Dimensioned working
drawings are given for each piece of machine work, and each operation is clearly
described. This machine, when used as a dynamo, has an output of fifty watts: when
used as a motor it will drive a small drill press or lathe. It can be used to drive a
sewing machine on any and all ordinarv work. The book is illustrated with more
than sixty original engravings showing the actual construction of the different parts.
Among the contents are chapters on: 1. Fifty-Watt Dynamo. 2. Side Bearing

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

Rods. 3. Field Punching. 4. Bearings. 5. Oommutator. 6. Pulley. 7. Brush
Holders. 8. Connection Board. 9. Armature Shaft. 10. Armature. 11. Armature
Winding. 12. Field Winding. 13. Connecting and Starting. Price, doth. $1.00

ELECTRIC WIRING, DIAGRAMS AND SWITCHBOARDS. By Newton
Harrison.

A thoroughly practical treatise covering the subject of Electric Wiring in all its branches,
Includinjs explanations and diagrams wliich are thoroughly explicit and greatly simplify
the subject. Practical, every-day problems in wiring are presented and the method
of obtaining intelligent results clearly shown. Only arithmetic is used. Ohm's law
is given a simple explanation with reference to wiring for direct and alternating
currents. The fundamental principle of drop of potential in circuits is shown with Ita
various applications. The ample circuit is developed with the position of mains,
feeders and branches; their treatment as a part of a wiring plan and tiieir employ-
ment in house wiring clearly illustrated. Some simple facts about testing are included
In connection with the wiring. Molding and conduit work are given carwul considera-
tion; and switchboards are systematically treated, built up and illustrated, showinc
the purpose they serve, for connection with the circuits, and to shunt and compound
wound machines. The simple principles of switchboaixl construction, the develop-
ment of the switchboard, the connections of the various instruments, including the
lightning arrester, are also plainly set forth.

Alternating current wiring is treated, with explanations of the power factor, conditions
calling for various sizes oiwire, and a simj^le wav of obtaining the sizes for single-phase,
two-phase and three-phase circuits. This is the only complete work issued showing
and telling you what you should know about direct and alternating current wiring. 1%
is a ready reference. The work is free trom advanced technicalities and mathematics,
arithmetic being used throughout. It is in everv respect a handy, well-written,
instructive, comprehensive volume on wiring for the wireman, foreman, contractor,
or electrician. 2^2 pages; 105 illustrations. Price $d.00

ELECTRIC FURNACES AND THEIR INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. By

J. Wright.

This is a book which will prove of interest to many classes of people: the manufacturer
who desires to know what product can be manufactured successfully in the electric
furnace, the chemist who wishes to post himself on electro - chemistry, and the
student of science who merely looks into the subject from curiosity. New revised
and enlarged edition. 320 pages. Fully illustrated. Cloth. Price . . $8.50

ELECTRIC TOY MAKING, DYNAMO BUILDING, AND ELECTRIC MOTOR
CONSTRUCTION. By Prof. T. O'Conor Sloanb.

This work treats of the making at home of electrical toys, electrical apparatus, motors,
dsmamos and instruments in general, and is designed to bring within the reach of

Soung and old the manuf actiu^ of genuine and useful electrical appliances. The work
I especially designed for amateurs and young folks.

Thousands of our yoimg people are daily experimenting, and busily engaged in making
electrical toys and apparatus of various kinds. The present work is just what is want-
ed to give tne much needed information in a plain^ractical manner, with illustrations
to make easy the carrying out of the work. 20th Edition. Price .... $1.00

PRACTICAL ELECTRICITY. By Prof. T. O'Conor Sloanb.

This work of 768 pages was previously known as Sloane's Electricians* Hand Book, and
is intended for the practical electrician who has to make things go. The entire
field of electricity is covered within its pages. Among some of the subjects treated
are: The Theory of the Electric Current and Circuit, Electro-Chemistry, Primary
Batteries. Storage Batteries, Oeneration and Utilization of Electric Powers, Alter-
nating Current, Armature Winding, Dynamos and Motors, Motor Generators,
Operation of the Central Station Switchboards, Safety Appliances, Distribution
of Electric Light and Power, Street Mains, Transformers. Arc and Incandescent
Lighting, Electric Measurements, Photometrv, Electric Railways, Telephony, Bell-
Wiring, Electric-Platinff, Electric Heating. Wireless Telegraphy, etc. It contains no
useless theory; evervthing is to the point. It teaches vou just what you want to
know about electricity. It is the standard work published on the subject. Fortv-
one chapters, 556 engravings. Price $8.60

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

ELECTRICITY SIMPLIFIED. By Prof. T. O'Conor Sloane.

The object of "Electricity Simplified" is to make the subject as plain as possible and
to show what the modem conception of electricity is; to show how two plates of
different metal, immersed in acid, can send a message around the globe; to explain
how a bundle of copper wire rotated by a steam engine can be the agent in lighting
our streets, to tell what the volt, ohm and ampere are, and. what high and low t^ision
mean; and to answer the questions that perpetually arise in the mind in this age of
electricity. 13th Edition. 172 pages. Illustrated. Price $1.00

HOUSE WIRING. By Thomas W. Poppe.

This work describes and illustrates the actual installation of Electric Light Wiring,
the manner in which the work should be done, and the method of doing it. The book
can be conveniently carried in the pocket. It is intended for the Electrician, Helper
and Apprentice, it solves all Winng Problems and contains nothing that conflicts
with the rulings of the National Board of Fire Underwriters. It gives just the informa-
tion essential to the Successful Wiring of a Building. Among the subjects treated are:
Locating the Meter. Panel Boards. Switches. Plug Receptacles. Brackets. Ceiling
Fixtures. .The Meter Connections. The Feed Wires. The Steel Armored Cable
Svstem. The Flexible Steel Conduit System. The Ridig Conduit System. A digest
of the National Board of Fire Underwiiters* rules relating to metallic wiring systems.
Various switching arrangements explained and diagrammed. The easiest method of
testing the Three- and Four-way circuits explained. The grounding of all metallic
wiring systems and the reason for doing so shown and explained. The insulation of
the metal parts of lamp fixtures and the reason for the same described and illustrated.
125 pages. 2nd Edition, revised and enlarged. Fully illustTated. Flexible cloth.
Price 60 centa

WHAT IS SAID OF THIS BOOK:

** The information given is exact and exhaustive without being too technical or over-
laden with details." — Druggists' Circular*

HOW TO BECOME A SUCCESSFULIELECTRICIAN. By Prof. T. O'CJonob

Sloane.

Every yoimg man who wishes to become a successful electrician should read this book.
It tells in simple language the surest and easiest way to become a successful electrician.
The studies to be followed, methods of work, field of operation and the requirements
of the successful electrician are pointed out and fully explained. Every young en-
gineer will find this an excellent stepping stone to more advanced works on electricity
. which he must master before success can be attained. Many young men become dis-
couraged at the very outstart by attempting to read and study books that are far
beyond their comprehension. This book serves as the connecting link between the
rudiments taught in the public schools and the real study of electricity. It is inter-
esting flY>m cover to cover. Eighteenth Revised Edition, just issued. 205 pages.
Illustrated. Price 91.00

STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY. By T. O'Conor Sloanb.

An indispensable work to all interested in electrical science. Suitable alike for the
student and professional. A practical handbook of reference containing definitions
of about 5,000 distinct words, terms and phrases. The definitions are terse and
concise and include every term used in electrical science. Recently issued. An en-
tirely new edition. Should be in the possession of all who desire to keep abreast with
the progress of this branch of science. In its arrangement and typography the book
is very convenient. The word or term defined is printed in black-faced type which
readily catches the eye. while the body of the page is in smaller but distinct type. The
definitions are well worded, and so as to be understood by the non-technical reader.
The general plan seems to be to give an exact, concise definition, and then amplify
and explain in a more popular way. Synonyms are also given, and references to other
words and phrases are made. A very complete and accurate index of fifty pages is
at the end of the volume; and as this index contains all synonyms, and as all phrases
are indexed in every reasonable combination of words, reference to the proper place
in the body of the book is readily made. It is difficult to decide how far a book of
this character is to keep the dictionary form, and to what extent it may assume the
encyclopedia form. For some purposes, concise, exactly worded definitions are needed ;
for other purposes, more extended descriptions are required. This book seeks to satisfy
both demands, and does it with considerable success. Complete, concise and con-
venient. 682 pages. 393 illustrations. Twelfth Edition. Price .... $8.00

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

SWITCHBOARDS. By William Baxter, Jr.

This book appeals to every engineer and electrician who wants to know the practical
side of things. It takes up all sorts and conditions of dynamos, connections and
circuits, and shows by diagram and illustration just how tne switchboard should be
connected. Includes direct and alternating current boards, also those for arc lighting,
incandescent and power circuits. Special treatment on high voltage boards for power
transmission. 2d Edition. 190 pages. Illustrated. Price 92.00

TELEPHONE CONSTRUCTION, INSTALLATION, WIRING, OPERATION
AND MAINTENANCE. By W. H. Radcliffb and H. C. CusHma.

This book is intended for the amateur, the wireman, or the engineer who desires to
establish a means of telephonic communication between the rooms of his home, office,
or shop. It deals only with such things as may be of use to him rather than with
theories.

Gives the principles of construction and operation of both the Bell and Independent
instruments; approved methods of installing and wiring them; the means of protecting
them from lightning and abnormal currents; their connection together for operation
as series or bridging stations ; and rules for their inspection and maintenance. Line
wiring and the wiring and operation of special telephone systems are also treated.

Intricate mathematics are avoided, and all apparatus, circuits and systems are thor-
oughly described. The appendix contains dennitions of units and terms used in the
text. Selected wiring tables, which are very helpful, are also included. Among the
subjects treated are Construction, Operation, and Installation of Telephone Instru-
ments; Inspection and Maintenance of Telephone Instruments; Telephone Line
Wiring ; Testing Telephone Line Wires and Cables ; Wiring and Operation of Specisd
Telephone Systems, etc. 2nd Edition, revised and enlarged. 223 pages. 154
illustrations $1.26

WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY AND TELEPHONY SIMPLY EXPLAINED. By
Alfred P. Morgan.

This is undoubtedly one of the most cbniplete and comprehensible treatises on the
subject ever published, and a close study oi its pages will enable one to master all the
details of the wireless transmission of messages. The author has filled a long-felt
want and has succeeded in furnishing a lucid, comprehensible explanation in simple
language of the theory and practice of wireless telegraphy and telephony.

Among the contents are: Introductory; Wireless Transmission and Reception — ^The
Aerial System, Earth Connections— The Transmitting Apparatus, Spark Coils and
Transformers, Condensers, Helixes, Spark Gaps, Anchor Gaps, Aerial Switches — The
Receiving Apparatus, Detectors, etc. — Tuning and CoupUng, Tuning Coils, Loose
Couplers, Variable Condensers, Directive Wave Systems — ^Miscellaneous Apparatus,
Telephone Receivers, Range of Stations, Static Interference — Wireless Telephones,
Sound and Sound Waves.The Vocal Cords and Ear — ^Wireless Telephone, How Sounds
Are Changed into Electric Waves — ^Wireless Telephones, The Apparatus — Summary.
154 pages. 156 engravings. Price $1.26

V;^HAT IS SAID OP THIS BOOK:
••This book should be in both the home and school library." — The Youths* Instructor^

WIRING A HOUSE. By Herbert Pratt.

Shows a house already built; tells just how to start about wiring it; where to begin;
what wire to use; how to run it according to Insurance Rules; in fact, just the informa-
tion you need. Directions apply equally to a shop. Fourth edition . . 86 cents

RADIO TIME SIGNAL RECEIVER. By Austin C. Lescarboura.

This new book, "A Radio Time Signal Receiver," tells you how to build a simple
outfit designed expressly for the beginner. You can build the outfits in your own
workshop and install them for jewelers either on a one-payment or a rental basis.
The apparatus is of such simple design that it may be made by the average amateur
mechanic possessing a few ordinary tools. 42 pages. Paper. Price . . 86 cents

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, HtACTICAL BOOKS

CONSTRUCTION OF A TRANSATLANTIC WIRELESS RECEIVING SET.

By L. G. Pacbnt and T. S. Cubtis.

A work for the Radio student who dedres to construct and operate apparatus that
will permit of the reception of messages from the large stations in Europe with an
aerial i^of amateur proportions. 36 pages. 23 illustrations, doth. Price . 85 cents

ELECTRIC BELLS. By M. B. Sleeper.

A complete treatise for the practical worker in installing, operating, and testing
bell dnniits, burglar alarms, thermostats, and other apparatus used with electric
bells. Both the electrician and the experimenter will find in this book new material
which is essential in their work. Tools, bells, batteries, unusual circuits, burglar
alarms, annunciators, systems, thermostats, circuit breakers, time alarms, and other
apparatus used in bell circuits are desdlbed from the standpoints of their applica-
tion, construction, and repair. The detailed instrufstions for ouildlng the apparatus
will appeal to the experimenter particularly. The practical worker will find the
chapters on Wiring Calculation of Wire Sizes and Magnet Windings, Upkeep of
Systems and the Location of Faults of the greatest value in their work. 124 pages.
Fully illustrated. Price 60 cents

EXPERIMENTAL HIGH FREQUENCY APPARATUS — HOW TO MAKE
AND USE IT. By Thomas Stanley Curtib.

This book tells you how to build simple high frequency colls for experimental purpose
in the home, school laboratory, or on the small lecture platform. The book is r«klly
a supplement to the same author's " High Frequency Apparatus." The experimental
side only is covered in this volume, which is intended for those who want to build
small coils giving up to an eighteen-inch spark. The book contains valuable in-
formation for the physics or the manual training teacher who is on the lookout for
interesting projects for his boys to build or experiment with. The apparatus is
simple, cheap and perfectly safe, and with it some truly startling experiments may be
performed. Among the contents are: Induction Cou Outfits Operated on Battery
Current. Kicking Coil Apparatus. One^Half Kilowatt Transformer Outfit. Parts
and Materials, etc., etc. 60 pages. Illustrated. Price 60 cents

HIGH FREQUENCY APPARATUS, ITS CONSTRUCTION AND PRACTICAL
APPLICATION. By Thomas Stanley Curtis.

The most comprehensive and thorough work on this interesting subject ever produced.
The book is essentially practical in its treatment and it constitutes an accurate record
of the researches of its author over a period of several years, during which time dozens
of coils were built and experimented with. The work has been divided into six basic
parts. The first two chapters tell the iminitiated reader what the high frequency
current is, what it is used for, and how it is produced. The second section, comprising
four chapters, describes in detail the prindples of the transformer, condenser, spark
gap, and osdllation transformer, and covers the main points in the dedgn and con-
struction of these devices as applied to the work in hand. The third section covers
the construction of small high frequency outfits dedffned for experimental work in the
home laboratory or in the classroom. The fourth section lis devoted to electro-
therapeutic and X-Ray apparatus. The fifth describes apparatus for the cultivation
of plants and vegetables. The sixth section is devoted to a comprehensive discussion
of apparatus of large size for use upon the stage in spectacular productions. The
closing chapter, giving the current prices of the parts and materials required for the
construction of the apparatus described, is included with a view to expediting the
purchase of the necessary goods. 248 pages. Fully illustrated. Price . 92.60

STORAGE BATTERIES SIMPLIFIED. By Victor W. Pag£, M.S,A.E.

A complete treatise on storage battery operating principles, repairs and applications.
The greatly increasing application of storage batteries in modem englneeriiig and
mechanical work has created a demand for a book that will consider this subject
completely and exclusively. This is the most thorough and authoritative treatise
ever publLshed on this subject. It is written in easily understandable, non-technical
language so that any one may grasp the basic principles of storage battery action as

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

well as their practical industrial applications. All electric and gasoline automobiles
use storage 'batteries. Every automobile repairman, dealer or salesman should have a
good knowledge of maintenance and repair of these important elements of the motor
car mechanism. This book not only tells how to charge, care for and rebuild storage
batteries but also outlines all the industrial uses. Learn how they run street cars,
locomotives and factory trucks. Get an understanding of the important functions they
perform in submarine boiats, isolated lighting plants, railway switch and signal systems,
marine applications, etc. This book teUs how they are used in central station standby
service, ror starting automobile motors and in ignition systems. Every practical use
of the modem storage battery is outlined in this treatise.

Chapters contained are: Chapter 1 — Storage Battery Development — Types of Storage
Batteries — Lead Plate Types — The Edison Cell. Chapter 2 — Storage Battery
Construction — Plates and Grids — Plants Plates — FaurS Plates — Non-Lead Plates —
Commercial Battery Designs. Chapter 3 — Charging Methods — Rectifiers — Con-
verters— ^Rheostats — Rules for Charing. Chapter 4 — ^Battery Repairs and Main-
tenance. Chapter 5 — ^Industrial Application of Storage Batteries — Glossary of
Storage Battery Terms. 320 pages. Fully illustrated. Price .... $2.00

FACTORY MANAGEMENT, ETC.

MODERN MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION, EQUIPMENT AND
MANAGEMENT. By O. E. Pbrrigo, M.E.

The only work published that describes the modem machine shop or manufacturing
plant fix)m the time the grass is growing on the site intended for It until the finished
product is shipped. By a careful study of its thirty-two chapters the practical man
may economically build, efficiently equip, and successfully manage the modem machine
shop or manufacturing establishment. Just the book needed by those contemplating
the erection of modem shop buildings, the rebuilding and reorganization of old ones,
or the introduction of modem shop methods, time and cost systems. It is a book
written and illustrated by a practical shop man for practical shop men who are too
busy to read theories and want facts. It is the most complete all-around book of ite
kind ever published. It is a practical book for practical men, firom the apprentice in
the shop to the president in the office. It minutely describes and illustrates the most
simple and yet me most efficient time and cost system yet devised. Price . $5.00

FUEL

COMBUSTION OF COAL AND THE PREVENTION OF SMOKE. By Wm.
M. Barr.

This book has been prepared with special reference to the generation of heat by the
combustion of the common fuels found in the United States, and deals particularly
with the conditions necessary to the economic and smokeless combustion of bituminous
coiUs tn Stationary and Locomotive Steam Boilers.

The presentation of this imiwrtant subject i >vsteniatic and pro-^ressive. The ar-
rangement of the book is in a series or practical questions to which are appended
accurate answers, which describe in language, free from technicalities, the several
processes Involved in the furnace combustion of American fuels: it clearly states the
essential requisites for perfect combustion, and points out the best methods for furnace
construction for obtaining the greatest quantity of heat from any given quality of
coal. Nearly 350 pages, fully illustrated. Price . $l.d6

SMOKE PREVENTION AND FUEL ECONOMY. By Booth and Kershaw.

Ab the title indicates, this book of 197 pages and 75 illustrations deals with the prob-
lem of complete combustion, which It treats fix)m the chemical and mechamcal
standpoints, besides pointing out the economical and humanitarian aspects of the
Questton. Price $8.00

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

GAS ENGINES AND GAS

THE GASOLINE ENGINE ON THE FARM: ITS OPERATION, REPAIR
AND USES. By Xeno W. Putnam.

This is a practical treatise on the Gasoline and Kerosene Engine intended for the man
who wants to know just how to manage his engine and how to apply.it to all kinds of
farm work to the best advantage.

This book abounds with hints and helps for the farm and suggestions for the home
and housewife. There is so much of value in this book that it is impossible to ade-
quately describe it in such small space. Suffice to say that it is the kind of a book
every farmer will appreciate and every farm home ought to have. Includes selecting
the most suitable engine for fafm work, its most convenient and efficient installation,
with chapters on troubles, their remedies, and how to avoid them. The care and
management of the farm tractor in plowing, harrowing, harvesting and road grading
are fully covered; also plain directions are given for handling the tractor on the road.
Special attention is given to relieving farm life of its drudgery by applying power to
the disagreeable small tasks which must otherwise be done by hand. Many home-
made contrivances for cutting wood, supplying kitchen, garden, and, bam with water,
loading, hauling and unloading hay, delivering grain to the bins or the feed trough
are included: also fun directions for making the engine milk the cows, chum, wash,
sweep the house and Clean the windows, etc. Very fully illustrated with drawings of
working parts and cuts showing Stationary, Portable and Tractor Engines doing all
kinds of farm work. All money-making farms utilize power. Learn now to utilize
power by reading tb ^ pages of this book. Tt is an aid to the result getter, invaluable
to the up-to-date farmer, student, blacksmith, implement dealer and, in fact, all who
can apply practical knowledge of stationary gasoline engines or gas tractors to advan-
tage. 530 pages. Nearly 180 engravings. Price $2.60

WHAT IS SAID OF THIS BOOK:

•• Am much pleased with the book and find it to be very complete and up-to-date
I will heartily recommend it to students and farmers whom I think would stand in
need of such a work, as I think it is an exceptionally good one." — N: S. Gardiner
Prof, in Charge, Clemson Agr. College of S. C. ; Dept. of Agri. and Agri. Exp. Station.
Clemson College, S. C. .

"I feel that Mr. Putnam's book covers the main points which a farmer should know."
— R. T, Burdick, Instructor in Agronomy, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vt.

"It will be a valuable addition to our library upon Farm Machinery.** — James A.
Farra, Inst, in Agri. Engineering, State University of Ky., Lexington, Ky.

GASOLINE ENGINES : THEIR OPERATION, USE AND CARE. By A. Htatt

Verrill.

The simplest, latest and most comprehensive popular work published on Gasoline
Engines, describing what the Gasoline Engine is; its construction and operation; how
to install it; how to select it; how to use it and how to remedy troubles encountered.
Intended for Owners, Opei'ators and Users of Gasoline Motors of all kinds. This
work fully describes and illustrates the various types of Gasoline 'Engines used in
Motor Boats, Motor Vehicles and Stationary Work. The parts, accessories and
appliances are described, with chapters on ignition, fuel, lubrication, operation and
engine troubles. Special attention is given to the care, operation and repair of motors,
with useful hints and suggestions on emergency repairs and makeshifts. A complete
glossary of technical terms and an alphabetically arranged table of troubles and their
symptoms form most valuable and unique featiu'es of this manual. Nearly every
illustration in the book is original, having been made by the author. Every page is
full of interest and value. A book which you cannot afford to be without. 275 pages.
152 specially made engravings. Price 92.00

GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. By Gardner D. Hiscox.

Just issued, 22d revised and enlarged edition. Every user of a gas engine needs this
book. Simple, instructive, and right up-to-date. The only complete work on the
subject. TeUs all about the running and management (A gas, gasohne and oil engines,

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

as designed and manufactured in the United States. Explosive motors for stationary
marine and vehicle power are fully treated, together with illustrations of their parts
and tabulated sizes, also their cdre and running are included. * Electric ignition by
induction coil and jump spark are fully explained and illustrated, including valuable
information on the testing for economy and power and the erection of power plants.

The rules and regulations of the Board of Fire Underwriters in regard to the installation
and management of gasoline motors are given in full, suggesting the safe installation
of explosive motor power. A list of United States Patents issued on gas, gasoline, and
oil engines and their adjuncts from 1875 to date is included. 640 pages. 435 engrav-
ings. Folding plates. Price $8.00

GAS ENGINE CONSTRUCTION, OR HOW TO BUILD A HALF-HORSE-
POWER GAS ENGINE. By Parsbll and Weed.

A practical treatise of 300 pages describing the theory and principles of the action of
Gas Engines of various types and the design and construction of a half-horse-power
Gas Engine, with illustrations of the work in actual progress, together with the dimen-
sioned working drawings, giving clearly the sizes of the various details; for the student,
the scientific investigator, and the amateur mechanic. This book treats of the subject
more from the standpoint of practice than that of theory. The principles of operation
of Gas Engines are clearly and simply described, and then the actual construction of a
half-horse-power engine is taken up, step by step, showing in detail the making of the
Gas Engine. 3d Edition. 300 pages. Price $8.00

HOW TO RUN AND INSTALL GASOLINE ENGINES. By C. Von Culin.

Revised and enlarged edition just issued. The object of this little book is to furnish
a pocket instructor for the beginner, the busy man who uses an engine for pleasure or
profit, but who does not have the time or inclination for a technical book, but simply
to thoroughly understand how to properly operate, install and care for his own engine.
The index refers to each trouble, remedy, and subject alphabeticaUy. Being a quick
reference to find the cause, remedy and prevention for troubles, and to become an
expert with his own engine. Pocket size. Paper binding. Price . . 26 cents

MODERN GAS ENGINES AND PRODUCER GAS PLANTS. By R. E.

Mathot.

A guide for the gas engine designer, user, and engineer in the construction, selection,
purchase, installation, operation, and maintenance of gas engines. More than one
book on gas engines has been written, but not one has thus far even encroached on the
field covered by this book. Above all Mr. Mathot's work is a practical guide. Recog-
nizing the need of a volume that would assist the gas engine user in imderstanding
thoroughly the motor upon which he depends for power, the author has discussed his
subject without the help of any mathematics and without elaborate theoretical ex-
planations. Every part of the gas engine is described in detail, tersely, clearly, with
a thorough understanding of the requirements of the mechanic. Helpfid suggestions
as to the purchase of an engine, its installation, care, and operation, form a most
valuable feature of the work. 320 pages. 175 detailed illustrations. Price . $8.00

THE MODERN GAS TRACTOR. By Victor W. Pag6.

A complete treatise describing all types and sizes of gasoline, kerosene and oil tractors.
Considers design and construction exhaustively, gives complete instructions for care,
operation and repair, outlines all practical applications on the road and in the field.
The best and latest work on farm tractors and tractor power plants. A work needed
by farmers, students, blacksmiths, mechanics, salesmen, implement dealers, designers
and engineers. 500 pages. Nearly 300 illustrations and folding plates. Price $2.60

CHEMISTRY OF GAS MANUFACTURE. By H. M. Royles.

This book covers points Ukely to arise in the ordinary course of the duties of the
engineer or manager of a gas works not large enough to necessitate the employment
of a separate chemical staff. It treats of the testing of the raw materials employed
in the manufacture of illuminating coal gas and of the gas produced. The preparation
of standard solutions is given as well as the chemical and physical examination of gas
coal. 5^x8^. Cloth, 328 pages. 82 illustrations, 1 coloired plate. Price $6.00

CATALpGUE OF GOOD, HIACTICAL BOOKS

I *■

GEARING AND CAMS

BEVEL GEAR TABLES. By D. Ao. Enostrom.

A book that will at onoe oommend itself to mechanics an^ draftsmen. ' Does away
with all the trigonometry and fancy fl^Turing on bevel gears, and makes it easy for any-
one to lay them out or make them iust right. There are 36 full-page tables that
show every necessary dimension for all sizes or combinations you're apt to need. No
puzzling, figuring or guessing. Gives placing distance. aU the angles (including
cutting angles), and the correct cutter to use. A copy of this prepares you for any-
thing in the bevel-gear line. 3d Edition. 66 pages 91.26

CHANGE GEAR DEVICES. By Oscar E. Perrigo.

A practical book for every designer, draftsman, and mechanicTInterested in the inven-
tion and development of the devices for feed changes on the different machines requir-
ing such mechanism. All the necessary information on this subject is taken up,
analyzed, classified, sifted, and concentrated for the use of busy men who have not the
time to go through the masses of irrelevant matter with which such a subject is usu-
ally encumbered and select such information as will be useful to them.

It shows just what has been done, how it has been done, when it was done, and who
did it. It saves time in hunting up patent records and re-inventing old ideas. 88
pages. $1.25

DRAFTING OF CAMS. By Louis Rouillion.

The laying out of cams is a serious problem unless you know how to go at it right.
This puts you on the right road for practically any kind of cam you are likely to run
up against. 3d Edition ' 86 cents

HYDRAULICS

HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING. By Gardner D. Hiscox.

A treatise on the properties, power, and resources of water for all purposes. Including
the measurement of streams, the flow of water in pipes or conduits; the horse-power,
of falling water, turbine and impact water-wheels, wave motors, centrifugal, recipro-
cating and air-lift pumps. With 300 figures and diagrams and 36 practical tables.
All who are interested in water-works development will find this book a useful one.
because it is an entirely practical treatise upon a subject of present importance, and
cannot fail in having a far-reaching influence, and for this reason should have a place
in the working librai^ of every eni^eer. Among the subjects treated are: Historical
Hydraulics, Properties of Water, Measurement of the Flow of Streams; Flow
from Sub-surface Orifices and Nozzles; Flow of Water in Pipes; Siphons of Various
Kinds; Dams and Great Storage Reservoirs; City and Town Water Supply; Wells
and Their Reinforcement; Air Lift Methods of Ratting Water; Artesian Wells;
Irrigation of Arid Districts; Water Power; Water Wheels; Pumps an^ Pumping
Machinery; Reciprocating Pumps; Hydraulic Power Transmission; Hydraulic
Mining; Canals; Ditches; Oonduits and Pipe Lines; Marine Hydraulics; Tidal and
Sea Wave Power, etc. 320 pages. Price ............ 94.50

ICE AND REFRIGERATION

POCKETBOOK OF REFRIGERATION AND ICE MAKING, By A. J.
Walus-Taylor.

This is one of the latest and most comprehensive reference books published on the
subject of refrteeration and cold storage. It explains the properties and refrigerating
effect of the different fluids in use, the management of refrigerating machinery and the
construction and insulation of cold rooms with their required pipe surface for different
degrees of cold; freezing mixtures and non-freezing brines, temperatures of cold rooms
for all kinds of provisions, cold storage charges for aU classes of goods, ice Timiring
and storage of ice, data'and memoranda for constant reference by refrigerating engineers,
with nearly one himdred tables containing valuable references to every fact and con-
dition required in the installment and operation of a refrigeratiiig plant. New
edition Just published. Price 92.00

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS '

INVENTIONS— PATENTS

INVENTORS' MANUAL, HOW TO MAKE A PATENT PAY, '

This is a book designed as a guide to inventors in perfecting their inventions, taking
out their patents and disposing of them. It is not in any sense a Patent Solicitor's
Cii*cu]ar nor a Patent Broker's Advertisement. ]No advertisements of any description
appear in the work. It is a book containing a quarter of a centtuy s experience of a
successful inventor, together with notes based upon the ezpedonoe of many other
inventors.

Among the subjects treated in this work are: How to Invent. How to Secure a
Good Patent. Value of Good Invention. How to Exhibit an Invention. How to
Interest Capital. How to Estimate the Value of a Patent. Value of Design "Patents.
Value of Foreini Patents. Value of Small Inventions. Advice on Selling Patents.
Advice on the Formation of Stock Companies. Advice on the Formation of Limited
Liability Companies. Advice on Disposing of Old Patents. Advice as to Patent
Attorneys. Advice as to Selling Agents. Forms of Assignments. License and Con-
tracts. Stat« Laws Concerning Patent Rights. 1900 Census of the United States by
Coimts of Over 10,000 Population. New revised and enlarged edition. 144 pages.
Illustrated. Price $1.26

KNOTS

KNOTS, SPLICES AND ROPE WORK. By A. Hyatt Verrill. i

This is a practical book giving complete and simple directions for making all the most
useful and ornamental knots in common use, with chapters on Splicing, Pointing,
Seizing, Serving, etc. This book is fullv illustrated with one hundred and fifty
original engravings, which show how each knot, tie or splice Is formed, and its appear-
ance when finished. The book will be found of the greatest value to Campers, Y achts-
men. Travelers, Boy Scouts, in fact, to anyone having occasion to use or handle rope
or knots for any purpose. The book is thoroughly reliable and practical, and is not
only a guide, but a teacher. It is the standard work on the subject. Among the
contents are: 1. Cordage, Kinds of Rope. Construction of Rope, Parts of Rope
Cable and Bolt Rope. Strength of Rope, Weight of Rope.. 2. Simple Knots and
Bends. Terms Used in Handling Rope. Seizing Rope. 3. Ties and Hitches. 4.
Noose, Loops and Mooring Knots. 5. Shortenings, Grommets and Salvages. 6.
Lashings, Seizings and Splices. 7. Fancy Knots and Rope Work. 128 pages. 150
original engravings. Price $1.00

LATHE WORK

LATHE DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND OPERATION/WITH PRACTICAL

EXAMPLES OF LATHE WORK. By Oscar E. Perrigo.

A new revised edition, and the only complete American work on the subject, written
by a man who knows not only how work ought to be done, but who also Imows how
to do it, and how to convey this knowledge to others. It is strictly up-to-date in its
descriptions and illustrations. Lathe history and the relations of the lathe to manu-
factunng are given; also a description of the various devices for feeds and thread
cutting mechanisms from early efforts in this direction to the present time. Lathe
design is thoroughly discussed, includino: back gearing, driving cones, thread-cutting
gears, and all the essential elements of the modem lathe. The classification of lathes
is taken up, giving the essential differences of the several types of lathes indyding,
as is usually imderstood, engine lathes, bench lathes, speed lathes, forge lathes, gap
lathes, puilev lathes, forming lathes, multip e-spindle lathes, rapid-reduction lathes,
precision lathes, turret lathes, special lathes, electrically-driven lathes, etc. In addi-
tion to the complete exposition on construction and design, much practical matter on
lathe installation, care and operation has been incorporated in the enlarged 1915 edi-
tion. All kinds of lathe attachments for drilling, milUng, etc., are described and
complete instructions are given to enable the novice machinist to grasp the art of lathe
operation as well as the principles involved in design. A number of difficult machining

• CATALOGXJE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

operations are described at length and illustrated. The new edition has nearly 500
pages and 350 illustrations. Price ^3.00

WHAT IS SAID OF THIS BOOK:

** This is a lathe book from beginning to end, and is just the kind of a book which one
delights to consult, — a masterly treatment of the subject in hand." — Enginsering News.

*' This work will be of exceptional interest to anyone who is interested in lathe practice,
as one very seldom sees such a complete treatise on a subject as this is on the lathe."—
Canadian Machinery.

TURNraO AND BORING TAPERS. By Fred H. Colvin.

There are two ways to turn tapers; the right way and one other. This treatise has
to do with the right way; it tells you how to start the work properly, how to set the
lathe, what tools to use and how to use them, and forty and one other little things
that you should know. Fourth edition. Price • . 85 cents

LIQUID AIR

LIQUID AIR AND THE LIQUEFACTION OF GASES. By T . O'Conor Slo anf.

This book gives the history of the theory, discovery, and manufacture of Ldquid Air.
and contains an illustrated description of all the experiments that have excited the
wonder of audiences all over the country. It shows how liquid air. like water, is
carried hundreds of miles and is handled in open buckets. It tells what may be ex-
pected from it in the near future.

A book that renders simple one of the most perplexing chemical problems of the
century. Startling developments illustrated by actual experiments.

It is not only a work of scientific interest and authoritv, but is intended for the general
reader, being written in a popular style— easily imderstood by every one. Second
edition. 365 pages. Pripe $2.60

LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING

AIR-BRAKE CATECHISM. By Robert H. Blackall.

This t)ook is a standard text book. It covers the Westinerhouse Air-Brake Equipment,
including the No. 5 and the No. 6 £. T. Locomotive Brake Equipment: the K (Quick
Service) Triple Valve for Freight Service; and the Cross-Compound Pump. The
operation of all parts of the apparatus is explained in detail, and a practical way of
finding their peculiarities and defects, with a proper remedy, Ls given. It contains
2,000 questions with their answers, which will enable any railroad man to pass any
examination on the subject of Air Braked. Endorsed and used by air-brake Instruc-
tors and examiners on nearly every railroad in the United States. 27th Edition. 411
pages, fully illustrated with colored plates and diagrams. Price $2.5C

AMERICAN COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. By Fred H. Colvin.

The only book on compounds for the engineman or shopman that shows in a plain,
practical way the various featiu-es of compound locomotives in use. Shows how they
are made, wnat to do when they break down or balk. Contains sections as follows:—
A Bit of History. Theory of Compounding Steam Cylinders. Baldwin Two-Cylinder
Compound. Pittsburg Two-Cylinder Compound. Rhode Island Compound. Rich-
mond Compound. Rogers Compound. Schenectady Two-Cylinder Compound.
Vauclain Compound. Tandem Compounds. Baldwin Tandem. The Colvin-Wight
man Tandem. Schenectady Tandem. Balanced Locomotives. Baldwin Balanced
Compound. Plans for Balancing. Locating Blows. Breakdowns. Reducing Valves.
Drifting. Valve Motion. Disconnecting. Power of Compound Locomotives. Practi-
cal Notes.

Fully illustrated and containing ten special " Duotone" inserts on heavy Plate Paper,
showing different types of Compoimds. 142 pages. Price $1.00

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

COMBUSTION OF COAL AND THE PREVENTION OF SMOKE. By Wm.

M. Barb.

This book has been prepared with special reference to the generation of heftt by the
combustion of the common fuels found in the United States and deals particularly
with the conditions necessary to the economic and smokeless combustion of bituminous
coal in Stationary and Locomotive Steam Boilers.

Presentation of this important subject is systematic and prosressive. The ar-
rangement of the book is in a series of practical questions to which are appended
accurate answers, which describe in language free from technicalities the several
processes involved in the furnace combustion of American fUels; it clearly states the
essential requisites for perfect combustion, and points out the best methods of furnace
construction for obtaining the greatest quantity of heat f^om any given quality of
coaL Nearly 350 pages, fully Illustrated. Price $1.26

DIARY OF A ROUND-HOUSE FOREMAN. By T. S. Rbillt.

This is the greatest book of railroad experiences ever published. Containing a fund of
information and suggestions along the line of handling men, organizing, etc., that one
cannot afford to miss. 176 pages. Price $1.86

LINK MOTIONS, VALVES AND VALVE SETTING. By Fred H. Colvin,
Associate Editor of American Machinist,

A handy book for the engineer or machinist that clears up the mysteries of valve
setting. Shows the different valve gears in use. how they work, and why. Piston
and slide valves of different types are illustrated and explained. A book that every
railroad man in the motive power department ought to nave. Contains chapters on
Locomotive Link Motion, valve Movements, Setting Slide Valves, Analysis by
Diagrams, Modem Practice, Slip of Block, SUce Valves, Piston Valves, Setting Piston
Valves, Joy- Allen Valve Gear, Walschaert Valve Gear, Gooch Valve Gear, Alftee-
Hubbell Valve Gear, etc., etc. Fully illustrated. Price GO.cents

LOCOMOTIVE BOILER CONSTRUCTION. By Frank A. Kleinhans.

The construction of boilers in general is treated, and, following this, the locomotive
boiler is taken up in the order in which its various parts go through the shop. Shows
aU tj'pes of boilers used; gives details of construction; practical facts, such as life of
riveting, punches and dies; work done per day, allowance for bending and flanging
sheets, and other data. Including the recent Locomotive Boiler Inspection Laws
and Examination Questions with their answers for Government Inspectors. Contains
chapters on Laying Out Work; Flanging and Forging; Punching; Shearing; Plate
Planing; General Tables; Finishing Parts; Bending; Machinery Parts; Riveting;
Boiler Details; Smoke Box Details; Assembling and Calking; Boiler Shop
Machinery, etc., etc.

There Isn't a man who has anything to do with boiler work, either new or repair work,
who doesn't need this book. The manufacturer, superintendent, foreman, and boiler
worker — all need it. No matter what the type of boiler, you'll find a mint of informa-
tion that you wouldn't be without. Over 400 pages, five large folding plates.
Price f $8.60

LOCOMOTIVE BREAKDOWNS AND THEIR REMEDIES. By Geo. L.

Fowler. Revised by Wm. W. Wood, Air-Brake Instructor. Just issued.

Revised pocket edition.

It is out of the question to try and tell you about every subject that is covered in this
pocket edition of Locomotive Breakdowns. Just imagine all the common troubles
that an engineer may expect to happen some time, and then add all of the unexpected
ones, troubles that could occur, but that you have never thought about, and you will
find that thev are all treated with the verv best methods of repair. Walschaert
Locomotive valve Oear Troubles, Electric Headlight Troubles, as well as Questions
and Answers on the Air Brake are all included. 312 pages. 8th Revised Edition.
Fully Illustrated. . . . • $1.26

LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. By Robert Grimbhaw.

The revised edition of "Locomotive Catechism," by Robert Orimshaw, is a New Book
ftom Cover to Cover. It contains twice as many pages and double the number of

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

illustrations of preyious editions. Includes the greatest amount of practical informa-
tion ever published on the construction and management of modem locomotives.
Specially Prepared Chapters on the Walschaert Locomotive Valve Gear, the Air-
Brake Equipment and the Electric Headlight are given.

It conmiends itself at once to every Engineer and Fireman, and to all who are going in
for examination or promotion . In plain language, with full, complete answers, not only
al> the questions asked by the examining engineer are ^iven, but those which the
young and less experienced would ask the veteran, and which old hands ask as " stick-
ers." It is a veritable Encyclopedia of the Locomotive, is entirely free from mathe-
matics, easily understood and thoroughly up-to-date. Contains over 4,000 Examina-
tion Questions with their. Answers. 825 pages, 437 illustrations and three folding
plates. 28th Revised Edition. Price $2.50

APPLICATION OF fflGHLY SUPERHEATED STEAM TO LOCOMOTIVES.

By Robert Garbe.

A practical book which cannot be recommended too highly to those motive-power
men who are anxious to maintain the highest efficiency in their locomotives. Con-
tains special chapters on Generation of Highly Superheated Steam; Superheated Steam
and the Two-Cylinder Simple Engine; Compounding and Superheating; Designs of
Locomotive Superheaters; Constructive uetails of Locomotives using Highly
Superheated Steam. Experimentdl and Working Results, illustrated with folding
plates and tables. Cloth. Price $3.00

PRACTICAL INSTRUCTOR AND REFERENCE BOOK FOR LOCOMOTIVE

FIREMEN AND ENGINEERS. By Ghas. F. Lockhart.

An entirely new book on the Locomotive. It appeals to every railroad man, as it
tells him how things are done and the right way to do them. Written by a man who
has had years of practical experience in locomotive shops and on the road firing and
running. The information given in this book cannot be found in any other similar
treatise. Eight hundred and fifty-one questions with their answers are included,
which will prove specially helpful to those preparing for examination. Practical
information on: The Construction and Operation of Locomotives ; Breakdowns and
their Remedies; Air Brakes and Valve G«ars. Rules and Signals are handled in a
thorough manner. As a book of reference it cannot be excelled. The book is divided
into six parts, as follows: 1. The Fireman's Duties. 2. General Description of the
Locomotive. 3. Breakdowns and their Remedies. 4. Air Brakes. 5. Extracts
trom Standard Rules. 6. Questions for Examination. The 851 questions have been
carefully selected and arranged. These cover the examinations required by the
different railroads. 368 pages. 88 illustrations. Price $2.00

PREVENTION OF RAILROAD ACCIDENTS, OR SAFETY IN RAILROADING.

By George Bradshaw.

This book is a heart-to-heart talk with Railroad Employees, dealing with facts, not
theories, and showing the men in the ranks, from every-day experience, how accidents
occur and how they may be avoided. The book is illustrated with seventy original
photographs and drawings showing the safe and unsafe methods of work. No vision-
ary schemes, no ideal pictures. Just plain facts and Practical Suggestions are given.
Every railroad employee who reads tne book is a better and safer man to have in
railroad service. It ^ves just the information which will be the means of preventing
many injuries and deaths. All railroad employees should procure a copy; read it,
and do your part in preventing accidents. 169 pages. Pocket size. Fully illustrated.
Price 60 cents

TRAIN RULE EXAMINATIONS MADE EASY. By G. E. Collinqwood.

This is the only practical work on train rules in print. Every detail is covered, and
puzzling points are explained in siznple, comprehensive language, making it a practical
treatise for the Train Dispatcher, Kngineman, Trainman, and aill others who have to
do with the movements of trains. Contains complete and reliable information of the
Standard Code of Train Rules for single track. Shows Signals in Colors, as used on
the different roads. Explains fully the practical application of train orders, caving a
clear and definite understanding of all orders which may be used. The meaning and
necessity for certain rules are explained in such a manner that the student may knoir
beyond a doubt the rights conferred under any orders he may receive or the action
required by certain rules. As nearly all roads require trainmen to pass regular exami-
nations, a complete set of examination questions, with their answers, are included.

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

These will enable the student to pass the required examinations with credit to himself
and the road for which he works. 256 pages. Fully illustrated with Train Signals
in Colors. Price $1.60

THE WALSCHAERT AND OTHER MODERN RADIAL VALVE GEARS FOR

LOCOMOTIVES, By Wm. W, Wood.

If you would thoroughly understand the Walschaert Valve Gear you should possess a
copy of this book, as the author takes the plainest form of a steam engine — ^a stationary
engine in the rough, that will only tiun its crank in one direction — and firom it builds
up — with the reader's help — ^a modem locomotive equipped with the Walscha^
Valve Gear, complete. The points discussed are clearly illustrated ; two large folding
plates that show the positions of the valves of both inside or outside admission type, as
well as the links and other parts of the gear when the crank is at nine different points
in its revolution, arQ especittllv valuable in making the movement clear. These employ
sliding cardboufd models which are contained in a pocket in the cover.

The book is divided into five general divisions, as follows: 1. Analysis of the gear.
2. Designing and erecting the gear. 3. Advantages of the gear. 4. Questions and
answers relating to the Walschaert Valve Gear. 5. Setting valves with the Wal-
schaert Valve Gear; the three primary types of locomotive valve motion; modem
radisd valve gears other than tne Walschaert; the Hobart All-free Valve and Valve
Gear, with questions and answers on breakdowns; the Baker-Pilliod Valve Gear; the
Improved BeJcer-Pilliod Valve Gear, with questions and answers on breakdowns.

The questions with full answers given will be especially valuable to firemen and engi-
neers hi preparing for an examination for promotion. 245 pages. Third Revised
Edition. Price $2.00

WESTINGHOUSE E-T AIR-BRAKE INSTRUCTION POCKET BOOK. By

Wm. W. Wood, Air-Brake Instructor.

Here is a book for the railroad man, and the man who aims to be one. It is without
doubt the only complete work published on the Westinghouse E-T Locomotive Brake
Equipment. Written by an Air-Brake Instructor who knowsjust what Ls needed. It
covers the subject thoroughly. Everything about the New Westinghouse Engine and
Tender Brake Equipment, Including the standard No. 5 and the Perfected No. 6
style of brake, is treated in detail. Written in plain English and profusely illustrated
with Colored Plates, which enable one to trace the flow of pressures throughout the
entire equipment. The best book ever published on the Air Brake. Equally good for
the beginner and the advanced engineer. Will pass any one through any examination.
It informs and enlightens you on every point. Indispensable to every engineman and
trainman.

Contains examination questions and answers on the E-T equipment. Covering what
the E-T Brake is. How it should be operated. What to do when defective. Not a
question can be asked of the engineman up for promotion, on either the No. 5 or the
No. 6 E-T equipment, that is not asked and answered in the book. If you want to
thoroughly understand the E-T equipment get a copy of this book. It covers every
detail. Makes Air-Brake troubles and examinations easy. Price .... $2.0O

MACHINE-SHOP PRACTICE

AMERICAN TOOL MAKING AND INTERCHANGEABLE MANUFACTURE

ING. By J. V. WooDWORTH.

A ''shoppy" book, containing no theorizing, no problematical or eicperimental devlcesr
there are no badly proportioned and impossible diagrams, no catalogue cuts, but a
valuable collection of drawings and descriptions of devices, the rich friiits of the author's
own experience. In its 500-odd pages tne one subject only. Tool Making, and what-
ever relates thereto, is dealt with. The work stands without a rival. It is a complete
practical treatise on the art of American Tool Making and system of interchangeable
manufacturing as carried on to-day in the United States. In it are described and
illustrated all of the different types and classes of small tools, fixtures, devices, and
special appliances which are in general use in all machine-manufacturing and metal-
working establishments where economy, capacity, and interchangeability in the pro-
duction of machined metal parts are imperative. The science of jig making is exhaus-
tively discussed, and particular attention is paid to drill jigs, boring, profiling and milling

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

fixtures and other devices in which the parts to be machined are located and fastened
within the contrivances. All of the tools, fixtures, and devices illustrated and de-
scribed have been or are used for the actual production of work, such as parts of drill
presses, laUies, patented machinery, typewriters, electrical sipparatus, mechanical ap-
pliances, brass goods, composition parts, mould products, sheet metal articles, drop-
lorgings. jewelry, watches, medals, coins, etc. 531 pages. Price .... 94.60

MACHINE-SHOP ARITHMETIC. By Colyin-Chenet.

This is an arithmetic of the things you have to do with daily. It tells you plainly
about: how to find areas in figures; how to find surface or volume of balls or spheres;
handy ways for calculating; about compoimd gearing; cuttine screw threads on any
lathe; drilling for taps; speeds of drills; taps, emery wheels, grindstones, milling
cutters, etc. ; all about the Metric system with conversion tables; properties of metals;
strength of bolts and nuts; decimal equivalent of an inch. All sorts of machine-shop
figuring and 1.001 other things, any one of which ought to be worth more than
the price of this book to vou, and it saves you the trouble of bothering the boss. 6th
edition. 131 pages. Price 60 cents

MODERN MACHINE-SHOP CONSTRUCTION, EQUIPMENT AND MAN-
AGEMENT. By Oscar E. Pbrrigo.

The only work published that describes the Modem Shop or Manufacturing Plant
from the time the grass is growing on the site intended for it imtil the finished product
is shipped. Just the book needed by those contemplating the erection of modem shop
buildings, the rebuilding and reorganization of old ones, or the introduction of Modern
Shop Methods, time and cost systems. It is a book written and illustrated by a prac-
tical shop man for practical shop men who are too busy to read theories and want facts.
It is the most complete all-round book of its kind ever published. 400 large quarto
pages. 225 original and specially-made illustrations. 2d Revised and JSnlarged
Edition. Price $6.00

««SHOP KINKS." By Robert Grimshaw.

A book of 400 pages and 222 illustrations, being entirely different from any othf r
book on machine-shop practice. Departing from conventional style, the authu
avoids universal or common shop usage and limits his work to showing special wa> -
of doing things better, more cheaply and more rapidly than usual. As a result the
advanced methods of representative establishments of the world are placed at tl.e
disposal of the reader. Tnis book shows the proprietor where large savings are possible,
and how products may be improved. To the employee it holds out suggestions that.

firoperly applied, will hasten his advancement. No shop can afford to be without it.
t bristles with valuable wrinkles and helpful suggestions. It will benefit all, from
apprentice to proprietor. Every machinist, at any age, should study its pages. Fifth
edition. Price $8.00

THREADS AND THREAD CUTTING. By Colvin and Stabbl.

This clears up many of the mvsteries of thread-cutting, such as double and triple
threads, internal threads, catching threads, use of hobs, etc. Contains a lot of useful
hints and several tables. Third edition. Price 86 cents

EVERYDAY ENGINEERING— THE BEST MECHANICAL MAGAZINE ON
THE MARKET. ONLY ONE DOLLAR AND FIFTY CENTS A YEAR
FOR TWELVE NUMBERS. SUBSCRIBE TO-DAY.

Every practical man needs a magazine which will tell him how to make and do things.
A monthly magazine devoted to practical mechanics for every-day men. Its aim is
to popularize engineering as a sdence. teaching the elements of applied mechanics
and electricity in a stiiightforward and understandable manner. The magazine
maintains its own experimental laboratory, where the devices described in articles
submitted to the Editor are first tried out and tested before they are published. This
important innovation places the standard of the published material very high, and
it insures accuracy and dependability.

The magazine is the only one in this coimtry that specializes in j)ractical model build-
ing. Articles in past issues have given comprehenrave designs for many model boats,
'ncluding submarines and chasers, model steam and gasoline engines, electric motors
d generators, etc., etc. This feature is a permanent one in the magazine.

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

AnoUier popular department 1b that devoted to automobiles and olrplanea,

_, . ._,._ ji ^e practical, every-dftj

IH^Bffiional.

The ma^adne entertains whUe It

rflinlng

lovtard practical mechanics a series „ . ,.

is going on and how it is done. These articles are profusDly illustrated with cleaf,

anappy photographs, specially posed to Illustrate the subject In the magazine's oim

Btudlo by Its own staff of teduiically-trained Illustrators and editors.

The Bubseriptlon price or the iiuw>i)i>e la ll.H per year gf twehe noiiibcn*

Sample copr sent on receipt o( ntteen eents.

Enter rour cnbtcriptloD to this practical macadne with m.

THE WHOLE FIELD OF MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS
COVERED BY MR. HISCOX'S TWO BOOKS

We pubHth s™ 6oot» by Oordner D. Jiilcox Oiat tcUl tetp you from "intaiHnq thlnf»
Oial nai€ been done before, ami etiggeit vtavs of doing Ihinge lAai yoa have not nouoftt of
before. Afonv a man fptndi Hnu and monev, pondertng ottr lome nuclusnical problem,
only to learn, after he luu eolied the problem, that the same IMns haa been oecompIlslWd
and put In praiUce ba olhai lont before. Time and moneji apent In an effort to accom-
pUth what hal already been accompHehed are time and money LOST. The tehole field
of mechania. etery knoan meehanteal movement, and praiMcalty eeery deeiee fi coiered
oy these tico booke. If the OUny you icanl has been inieriled, II is illustrated In them. 1/
U hasn't been ineenlea. Iften you'll find in ttiem the nearest thirigs to lehat vou ironl, some
motemtnta or iltiiices that tdll apptv in your case, perhaps; or lohich will gi'* you a key
from which to work. No book or set of books teer published is of more real valus to the
Intentor, Draftsman, or practical Mechanic than the tipo mtlumes described below.

, J _~r r ■ S It a boolc of great value to the Inventor,

(he diaftsman. and to all readers witli mechanical taales. The book is divided Into
eighteen sections or chapters, la which the subject-oiatter la classlfled under the follow-
ing beads: Mechanical Powers: Tranamiasion of Power; Meaauremoit of Power;
Bteam Power; Air Power Appliances: Electric Power and Oonstniction; Navigation

Bteam Power; Air Power Appliances: Electric Power and Oonstniction; Navigation
and Boadsj Oearlog: Motion and Devices: Controlling Motion; Horologlcal;
"'-' — ; Mill and Factory Appliances; ConstrucWon and Devicae: Drafting Devices:
Eineous Devices, etc. ISth edition enlaiiged. 400 octavo pages. Fdce . SS^

MECHASICAL APPLIANCES, MECHAKICAL HOVEMEHTS AND TXOVBL-
TIES OF CONSTRUCTION. By Gahbiteb D. Hibcox.

This Is a aupplementary volume to the ooe upon niechantcal movements. TTnlIke tha

flrst volume, which 1b more elementary in character, this volume contains Illustrations

and descriptions of many combinations of motious and of

appliances found in dtttereiit lines of machinery, each devk

drawing with a description showing Its workluH parts and t

From the multitude of devices described and Illustrated

passing, such items as conveyors and elevators. Prouy brake

tnies of boilers, solar engines, oil-fuel burners, condensers,

Mber valve gears, governors, gas engines, water motors of

sfalps, moWrs and dynamos, automobile and motor bicycl

car couplers, link and gear motions, ball bearings, breech blc

guns, and a large accumulation o( others of equal importanc

engravings. 396 octavo pages. 4Qi Edition enlarged. Prli

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND SHOP PRACTICE. By W. H. Vai«>ervoort.

A work of 555 pages and 673 illustrations, describing in every detail the construction,
operation, and manipulation of both hand and machine tools. Includes chapters
on filing, fitting, and scraping surfaces; on drills, reamers, taps, and dies; the lathe'
and its tools; planers, shapers, and their tools; milling machines and cutters; gear
cutters and gear cutting; drilling machines and drill work; grinding mac^iines and
their work; hardening and tempering; gearing, belting, and transmission machinery;
useful data and tables. 6th edition. Frice $4.35

THE MODERN MACHINIST. By John T. Usher.

This is a book showing, by plain description and by profuse engravings made expressly
for the work, all that is best, most advanced, and of the highest efficiency in modern
machine-shop practice, tools, and implements, showing the way by which and through
which, as. Mr. Maxim says, "American machinists have become and are the finest me-
chanics in the world." Indicating as it does, in every line, the familiarity of the author
with every detail of daUy experience in the shop, it cannot fail to be of service to any
man practically connected with the shaping or finishing of metals.

There, is nothing experimental or visionary about the book, all devices being in actual
use and giving good results. It might be called a compendium of shop methods,
showing a variety of special tools and appliances which will give new ideas to many
mechanics, from the superintendent down to the man at the bench. It will be foiuid
a valuable edition to any machinist's library, and should be consulted whenever a
new or difficult job is to be done, whether it is boring, milling, turning, or planing,
as they are all treated in a practical manner. Fifth edition. 320 pages. 250 illustra-
. tions. Price $2.60

HENLEY'S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL ENGINEERING AND ALLIED
TRADES. Edited by Joseph G. Horner, A.M.I.Mech.E.

This book covers the entire practice of Civil and Mechanical Engineering. The
best known experts in all branches of engineering have contributed to these volumes.
The Cyclopedia is admirably well adapted to the needs of the beginner and the self-
taught practical man, as well as the mechanical engineer, designer, draftsman, shop
superintendent, foreman and machinist.

It is a modem treatise in five volumes. Handsomely bound in half morocco, each
volume containing nearly 500 pages, with thousands of illustrations, including dia-
grammatic and sectional drawings with full explanatory details. For the complete
set of five volumes. Price $80.0<)

IilODEL MAKING Including Workshop Practice, Design and Construction of
Models. Edited by Raymond F. Yates. Editor of "Everyday Engineering
Magazine."

This book does not describe the construction of toys. Its pages are devoted to model
engineering and the mechanical sciences associated with it. It contains descriptions
with illustrations of the complete models made by some of the leading model engineers
in this coimtry. It is the only book published on this important subject.

The first part of the book is devoted to the mechanical sciences and processes related
to model engineering and mechanics in general. To the inexperienced workman, who
wishes to make models but is untrained in the fundamental mechanics, this book will
afford all the information necessary. For the experienced mechanic, there are many
hints and short cuts that will be found helpful. Few mechanics, no matter how well
trained, know how to make their own patterns. Yet a complete treatise on this im-
portant craft is given. The same holds true in regard to the intelligent use of abrasives
m the home shop. This, too, is completely covered in a way^that will not only help the
beginner but teach the trained man a few things that he may not have understood
before. In short, the fore part of the^book will i)repare men to more thoroughly under-
stand the processes connected with model making no matter what their standing.

This book will help you to become a better mechanic. It is full of suggestions for those
who like to make things, amateur and professional alike. It has been prepared es-
pecially for men with mechanical hobbies. Some may be engineers, machinist's, jew-
elers, pattern makers, office clerks or bank presidents. Men from various walks of
life have a peculiar interest in model engineenng. Model Makinq will be a help and

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

an inspiration to such men. Ik tells them "how-to-do" and "how-to-make" things
in simple, understandable terms. Not only this, it is full of Kood, clear working
drawings and photographs of the models and apparatus described. Each model has
been constructed and actually works if it is made according to directions. 375 pages.
300 illustrations. Price $8.00

MARINE ENGINEERING

THE NAVAL ARCHITECT'S AND SHIPBUILDER'S POCKETBOOK. Of

Formulae, Rules, and Tables and Marine Engineer's and Surveyor's Handy
Book of Reference. By Clement Mackrow and Lloyd Woollard.

The eleventh revised and enlarged edition of this most comprehensive work has just
been issued. It is absolutely indispensable to all enga^^ed in the Shipbuilding Industry,
as it condenses into a compact form all data and formul8B]that are ordinarily required.
The book is completely up to date, including among other subjects a section on
Aeronautics. 750 pages, limp leather binding. Price $6.00

MARINE ENGINES AND BOILERS— THEIR DESIGN AND CONSTRUC-
TION. THE STANDARD BOOK. By Dr. G. Bauer, Leslie S. Robertson
and S. Bryan Donkin.

In the words of Dr. Bauer, the present work owes its origin to an oft felt want of a
condensed treatise embodying the theoretical and practical rules used in designing
marine engines and boilers. The need of such a work has been felt by most en-
gineers engaged in the construction and working of marine engines, not only bv the
younger men. but also by those of greater experience. The fact that the original
German work was written by the chief engineer of the famous Vulcan Works, Stettin,
is in itself a guarantee that this book is in all respects thoroughly up-to-date, and
that it embodies all the' information which is necessary for the design and construction
of the highest types of marine engines and boilers. It may be said that the motive
power which Dr. Bauer has placed in the fast German liners that have been turned
out of late years from the Stettin Works represent the very best practice in marine
engineering of the present day. The work is clearly written, thoroughly systematic,
theoretically soimd; while the character of the plans, drawings, t>ables. and statistics
is without reproach. The illustrations are careful reproductions from actual working
drawings, with some well-executed photographic vi^ws of completed engines and
boilers. 744 pages. 550 illustrations, and numerous tables. Cloth. Price. $10.0O

MODERN SUBMARINE CHART. - Vi

A cross-section view, showing clearly and distinctly all the. interior of a Submarine
of the latest type. You get more information from this chart about the constructioii
and operation of a submarine than in any other way. No details omiibted-r--eyery-
thing is accurate and to scale. It is absolutely correct in every detail, having been
approved by naval engineers. All the machinery and devices fitted in a modem
Submarine Boat are shown, and to make the engraving more readily understood
all the features are shown in operative form, with Officers and Men in the act of _per-
forming the duties assigned to them in service conditions. THIS CHART IS REALLY
AN ENCYCLOPEDIA OF A SUBMARINE. It is educational and worth many
times its cost. Mailed in a tube for 86 cents

MANUAL TRAINING

ECONOMICS OF MANUAL TRAINING. By Louis Rouiujon.

The only book published that gives just the information needed by all interested in
Manual Training, regarding Buildings, Equipment, and Supplies. Shows exactly
what is needed for all grades of the work from the Kindergarten to the High and
Normal School. Gives itemized lists of everything used in Manual Training Work
and tells just what it ought to cost. Also shows where to \>i\y suppUes, etc. Contains
174 pages, and is fuUy Illustrated. 2d edition. Price $2.0O

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

MINING

ORE DEPOSITS, WITH A CHAPTER ON HINTS TO PROSPECTORS.

By J. P. Johnson.

This book gives a condensed account of the ore deposits at present known in South
Afriqa. It is also intended as a ^de to the prospector. Only an elementary knowl-
edge of geology and some mining experience are necessary in order to understand this
work. With these qualiflcations, it will materially assist one in his search for me-
talliferous mineral occurrences and. so far as simple ores are concerned, should enable
one to form some idea of the possibilities of any he may find. Illustrated.
Cloth. Price $2.00

PRACTICAL COAL MINING. By T. H. Cockin.

An important work, containing 428 pages and 213 illustrations, complete with practical
details, which will intuitively impart to the reader not only a general knowledge of the
principles of coal mining, but also considerable insight into allied subjects. The
treatise is positively up-to-date in every instance, and should be in the hands of every
colliery engineer, geologist, mine operator, superintendent, foreman, and all others
who are interested in or connected with the industry. Third edition . S2.60

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY OF MINING. By T. H. Byrom.

A practical work for the use of all preparing for examinations in mining or qualifying
for colliery managers' certificates. Tne aim of the author in this excellent book is
to j>lace ctoarly before the reader useful and authoritative data which will render hini

valuable assistance in his studies. The only work of its kind published. The in-
formation incorporated in it will prove of the greatest practical utility to students,
nriining engineers, colliery managers, and all others who are si)ecially interested in the
present-day treatment of mining problems. Second edition, revised. 188 pages.
Illustrated. Price 92.00

PATTERN MAKING

PRACTICAL PATTERN MAKING. By F. W. Babrowb.

This book, now in its second edition, is a comprehensive and entfrebr practical treatise
on the subject of pattern making, illustrating pattern work in both wood and metal,
and with definite instructions on the use of xuaster of paris in the trade. It gives
spedflc and detailed descriptions of the materials used by pattern makers and de-
scribes the tools, both those for the bench and the more interesting machine tools;
having complete chapters on the Lathe, the Circular Saw, and the Band Saw. It gives
manv examples of pattern work, each one fully illustrated and explained with much
detail. These examples, in thdlr great variety, offer much that will be found of
Interest to all pattern makers, ana especially to the younger ones, who are seeking
information on the more advanced branches of their trade.

In this second edition of the work will be found much that is new, even to those who
have long practised this exacting trade. In the description of patterns as adapted
to the Moulding Machine many difficulties which have long prevented the rapid and
economical production of castings are overcome; and this great, new branch of the
trade is given much space. Stripping plate and stool plate work and the less expen-
sive vibrator, or rapping plate work, are all explained in detail.

Plain, everyday rules for lessening the cost of patterns, with a complete svstem of
cost keeping, a detailed method of marking, applicable to all branches of the trade,
with complete information showing what the pattern is, its specific title, its cost,
date of production, material of which it is made, the number of pieces and core-
boxes, and its location in the pattern safe, all condensed into a most complete card
record, with cross index.

The book closes with an original and practical method for the inventory and valua-
tion of patterns. Containing nearly 350 pages and 170 illustrations. Price . $2.60

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

PERFUMERY

PERFOMESAITD COSMETICS, THEIR PREPARATION Aim HAiniFAC-
TURE. By G. W. Askinbon, Perfumer,
A comprehensive treatise. 1:
value to the perTumer or a
for m»irtng handkerchief
prapancioiii Tor the csre ol
other toilet artldea ue glvei
nature, leats of puilty, an''
prodiicU. TiHi f^mulas tc
teraM. met ' '-

terati<Hi of Essential O

Physical Properttas ol Amiu,

in Ferfumery. 13. DirecUoi

14. The DlvislaD of Perfun

16. Formulas lOr Handker

18, Dry Perfumes. 19. Fo

Pumlgatloii. 21. Antiseptic

Odors. 23. Some Specid Pa

25. PreparatbMia tor the Can

for Emulsions. 2S. Forrauk

taUe Milk. 30. Preporatloi

Restorers. 32. Pomades a.tu ^-^ ^^. a<.. iuiuiuibo iui vud i..w..u~.i,u.o u>

Pomades and Hair Oils. 34. Hair Dyes and Depllatoriea. 3S. Wax Pomadee. Baodo-

Uoes and BrtlUantdnea. 30. Sidn Coamellcs and Face Lotions. 37. I^'epafationB tor

the Naila. 38. Water Softeners and Bath Salts. 39. Preparatlona for the Care of tli»

Moirth. 40. The Colore Used in Perfumeryi 41. The Utensils Used In the Toilet.

Fourth edition much enlarged and brought up-to-date. Nearly 400 pagn. Ulus*

(ntted. Price «6.0O

WHAT 18 SAID OF THIS BOOK:
" ^e most satisfactory wotk on the subject of Poifumery that we have ever aerai.
" We feel safe In Baying that here Is a book on Perfumery that will not dlsappcdnt yoQ,
tor It has practical and excellent formube that are within your ability to prepar»

" We recommend the volume as worthy of confidence, and say that no purcliaser win ba
disappointed In securing ^m Its pages good Tslue. for IM cost, and a large dividend
on the same, even U he should use but one per cent of Its working fOrmuhe. Them
Is money in it tor every user of Its Informatloii." — PharvvKmHcai Record.

The moat valuable techno-chemlcal reccdpt book published. Contains ova 10,000
practical receipts, many of which will prove of special value to the
perfumer, mce S8^

HECHAmCAL DRAWmG FOR PLUUBERS. By R. M. Staabuce.

A condse, comprehensive and practical treatise on the subject of mechanical drawing
In lu viuiniifi mndcm applications to the work of all who are In any way connected
Z trade. Nothing will so help the plumber In estimating and In

explaining work to customers and workmen as a knowledge of drawing. e..._ ..

workman It Is of Inestimable value If he is to rise above his position to positions of
ereater responsibility. Among the chapters contained are: 1. Value to plumber of

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

knowledge of drawing; tools required and their use; common views needed in mechan-
ical drawing. 2. Perspective versus mechanical drawing in showing plumbing con-
struction. 3. Ck>rrect and incorrect methods in plumbing drawing; plan and elevation
explained. 4. Floor and cellar plans and elevation; scale drawings; use of triangles.
5. Use of triangles; drawing of nttings, traps, etc. 6. Drawing plumbing elevations
and fittings. 7. Instructions in drawing plumbing elevations. 8. The drawing of
plumbing fixtures; scale drawings. 0. Drawings of fixtures and fittings. 10. Inking
of drawings. 11. Shading of drawings. 12. Shading of drawings. 13. SectionsQ
drawings ; drawing of threads. 14. Plumbing elevations m)m architect's plan. 15. Ele-
vations of separate parts of the plumbing system. 16. Elevations from the architect's
1)lans. 17. Drawings of detail pliunbing connections. 18. Architect's plans and plumb-
ng elevations of residence. 19. Plumbing elevations of residence (continued) ; plumb-
ing plans for cottage. 20. Pliunbing elevations; roof connections. 21. Plans and
plumbing elevations for six-flat building. 22. Drawing of various parts of the plumb-
mg system; use of scales. 23. Use of architect's scales. 24. Special featiu-ee in the
illustrations of country plumbing. 25. Drawing of wrought-iron piping, valves, radia-
tors, coils, etc. 26. Drawing of piping to illustrate heating systems. 150 illustrations.
Price $2.0O

MODEIUN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED. By R. M. Starbttck.

This book represents the highest standard of plumbing work. It has been adopted
and used as a reference book oy the United States Government, in its sanitarv work in
Cuba, Porto Bico, and the PhiUppines, and by the principal Boards of Health of the
United States and Oanada.

It gives connections, sizes and working data for all fixtures and groups of fixtures. It
is helpful to the master plumber in demonstrating to his customers and in figuring
work. It gives the mechanic and student quick and easy access to the best modem

Elumbing practice. Suggestions for estimating plumbing construction are contained
lits pages. This book represents, in a word, the latest and best up-to-date practice
and should be in the hands of everv architect, sanitary engineer and plumber who
wishes to keep himself up to the minute on this important feature of construction.
Contains following chapters, each illustrated with a full-page plate: Kitchen sink,
laundry tubs, v^etable wash sink; lavatories, pantry sinks, contents of marble slabs;
bath tub. foot and sitz bath, shower Mth; water closets, venting of water closets; low-
down water closets, water closets operated by fiush valves, water closet range ; slop sink,
urinals, the bidet ; hotel and restaurant sink, grease trap ; refrigerators, safe wastes, laun-
dry waste, lines of refrigerators, bar sinks, soda fountain sinks; horse stall, frost-proof
water closets; connections for S traps, venting; connections for drum traps; soil pipe
connections; supporting of soil pipe; main trap and fresh air inlet; floor drains and
cellar drains, subsoil drainage; water closets and floor connections; local Tien ting;
connections for bath rooms; connections for bath rooms, continued; connections for
bath rooms, continued; connections for bath rooms, continued; examples of poor
practice; roughing work ready for test; testing of plumbing system; method of con-
tinuous venting; continuous venting for two-floor work; continuous venting for two
lines of flxtures on three or more floors; continuous venting of water (dosets; plumb-
ing for cottage house; construction for cellar piping; plumbing for residence, use of
special fittings; plumbing for two-flat house; plumbing for apartment building, pliunb-
ing for double apartment building; plumbing for office building; plumbing for public
toilet rooms; plumbing for public toilet rooms, continued; plumbing for bath estab-
lishment; plumbing for engine house, factory plumbing; automatic flushing for
schools, factories, etc.; use of flushing valves; urinals for public toilet rooms; the
Durham system, the destruction of pipes by electrolysis; construction of work without
use of lead; automatic sewage Uft; automatic sump tank; country plumbing; construc-
tion of cesspools; septic tank and automatic sewage siphon; country plumbing; water
supply for country house; thawing of water mains and service bv electricity; double
boilers; hot water supply of large buildings; automatic control of hot water tank; sug-
gestion for estimating plumbing construction. 407 octavo pages, fully illustrated by 58
full-page engravings. Third, revised and enlarged edition Just issued. Price . $6.00

STANDARD PRACTICAL PLUMBING. By R. M. Starbuck.

A complete practical treatise of 450 pages covering the subject of Modem Plumbing
in all its branches, a large amount of space being devoted to a very complete and
practical treatment of the subject of Hot Water Supply and Circulation and Range
Boiler Work. Its thirty chapters include about every phase of the subject one can
think of, making it an indispensable work to tiie master plumber, the joiuneyman
plumber, and the apprentice plumber, containing chapters on: the plumber's tools;

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

Wiping solder; ' composition and use; Joint wiping; lead work; traps; siphonage of
traps; venting; continuous venting; house sewer and sewer connections; house drain;
soil piping, roughing; main trap and fresh air inlet; floor, yard, cellar drains, rain
leaders, etc.; fixture wastes; water closets; ventilation; improved plumbing connec-
tions; residence plumbing; plumbing for hotels, schools, factories, stables, etc.;
modem coimtxy plumbing; nitration of sewage and water supply; hot and cold
supply; range boilers; circulation; circulating pipes; range boiler problems; hot
water for large buildings; water lift and its use; multiple connections for hot water
boilers; heating of radiation by supply system; theory for the plumber; drawing for
the plumber. Fully illustrated by 347 engravings. Price . ^ $3.60

RECIPE BOOK

HENLEY'S TWENTIETH CENTURY BOOK OF RECIPES, FORMULAS AND
PROCESSES. Edited by Gabdner D. Hiscox.

The most valuable Techno-chemical Formula Book published, including over 10,000
selected scientific, chemical, technological, and practical recipes and processes.

This is the most complete Book of Formulas ever published, giving thousands of
recipes for the manufacture of' valuable articles for everyday use. Hints, Helps,
Ih^kctical Ideas, and Secret Processes are revealed within its pages. It covers every
branch of the useful arts and tells thousands of ways of making money, and is Just the
book everyone should have at his command.

Modem in its treatment of every subject that properly falls within its scope, the book
may truthfully be said to present the very latest formulas to be found in the arts and
industries, and to retain those processes which long experience has proven worthy of a
permanent record. To present here even a limited number of the subjects which find
a place in this valuable work would be difficult. Suffice to say that in its pages will
be found matter of intense interest and immeasurably practical value to the sdentdflc
amateur and to him who wishes to obtain a knowledge of the nrany processes used hi
the arts, trades and manufacture, a knowledge which will render his pursuits more
instructive and remimerative. Serving as a reference book to the small and large
manufacturer and supplying intelligent seekers with the information necessary to
conduct a process, the work will be found of inestimable worth to the Metallurgist, the
PhotoKrapner, the Perfumer, the Painter, the Manufacturer of Glues, Pastes, Cements, .
and Mucilages, the Compounder of Alloys, the Cook, the Physician, the Druggist, the
Electrician, the Brewer, the Engineer, the Foundryman, the Machinist, the Potter, the
Tanner, the Confectioner, the Chiropodist, the Manicure, the Manufacturer of Chem-
ical Novelties and Toilet Preparations, the Dyer, the Electroplater, the Enameler, the
Engraver, the Provisioner. the Glass Worker, the Goldbeater, the Watchmaker, the
Jeweler, the Hat Maker, the Ink Manufacturer, the Optician, the Farmer, the Dairy-
man, the Paper Maker, the Wood and Metal Worker, the Chandler and Soap Maker,
the Veterinary Surgeon, and the Technologist in general.

A mine of information, and up-to-date in every respect. A book which will prove of
value to EVERYONE, as it covers every branch of the Useful Arts. Every home
needs this book; every office, every factory, every store, every pubUc and private en-
terprise—EVERYWHERE — should have a copy. 800 pages. Price . . . $8.00

WHAT IS SAID OF THIS BOOK:

"Your Twentieth Century Book of Recipes, Formhlas, and Processes duly received.
I am glad to have a copy of it. and if I could not replace it. money couldn't buy it. It
is the best thing of the sort I ever saw." (Signed) M. E. Trux, Sparta, Wis.

** There are few persons who would not be able to find in the book some single formula
that would repay several times the cost of the book." — Merdiants' Record and Show
Window.

*' I purchased your book ' Henley's Twentieth Century Book of Recipes, Formulas and
Processes' about a year ago and it is worth its weight in gold." — ^Wm. H. Musbat,
Bennington, Vt.

•THE BOOK WORTH THREE HUNDRED DOLLARS"

"On close examination of your 'Twentieth Century Receipt Book,' I find it to be a
very valuable and useful book with the very best of practical information obtainable.
The price of the book. $3.00, is very small in comparison to the benefits which one can

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

obtain from it. I consider the book worth fully three hundred dollars to anyone.**
— Db. a. O. Spbttb, New York.

"ONE OP THE WORLD'S MOST USEFUL BOOKS"

*' Some time ago. I got one of your ' Twentieth Century Books of Formulas * and bave
made my living from it ever since. I am alone since my husband's death witli two
small cmldren to care for and am Uying so hard to supp<Mrt them. I have customers
who take fh>m me Toilet Articles I put up, following directions given in the book,
and I have found every one of them to be fine." — Mas. J. H. McMaken. West Toledo,
Ohio.

RUBBER

RUBBER HAIVD STAMPS AND THE MAIOPULATION OF INDIA RUBBER.

By T. O'CoNOR Sloane.

This book gives full details on all points, treating in a concise and simple manner the
elements of nearly everything it Is necessary to undostand for a commencement in
any branch of the India Rubber Manufacture. The making of all kinds of Rubber
Hand Stamps, Small Articles of India Rubber, U. S. Crovemment Composition. Dating
Hand Stamps, the Manipulation of Sheet Rubber, Toy Balloons. India Rubber Solu-
tions, Cements, Blackings. Renovatixig Varnish, and Treatment for India Rubber
Shoes, etc.; the Hektograph Stamp Inks, and Miscellaneous Notes, with a Short
Account of the Discovery, Collection and Manufacture of India Rubber, are set forth
in a manner designed to be readily understood, the explanations being plain and simple.
Including a chapter on Rubber Tire Makixig and Vulcanizing; also a chapter on the
uses of rubber in Surgery and Dentistry. Third revised and enlarged edition. 175
pages. Illustrated $1.26

HENLEY'S TWENTIETH CENTURY BOOK OF RECIPES, FORMULAS
AND PROCESSES. Edited by Gardner D. Hiscox.

Contains upward of 10,000 practical receipts, including among them formulas on
artificial rubber. Price 98.00

SAWS

SAW FILINGS AND MANAGEMENT OF SAWS. By Robert Grimshaw.

A practical hand-book on filing, gumming, swa^g, hammering, and the brazing of
band saws, the speed, work, and poww to run cuxnilar saws, etc. A handy book for
those who have charge of saws, or for those mechanics who do their own filing, as it deals
with the proper shape and pitches of saw teeth of all kinds and gives many useful hints
and rules for gumming, setting, and filing, and is a practical aid to those who use saws
for any purpose. Complete tables of proper shape, pitch, and saw teeth as well as
sizes and niunber of teeth of various saws are in<uuded. Fourth edition, revised and
enlarged. Illustrated. Price $1.25

STEAM ENGINEERING

AMERICAN STATIONARY ENGINEERING. By W. E. Crane.

This book begins at the boiler room and takes in the whole power plant. A plain
talk on every-day work about engines, boilers, and their accessories. It is not Intended
to be scientific or mathematical. All formulas are in simple form so that any one
understanding plain arithmetic can readily understand any of them. The author
has made this the most practical book in print; has given the results of his years of
experience, and has included about all that has to do with an engine room or a power
plant. You are not left to guess at a single point. You are shown clearly what to
expect under the various conditions ; how to secure the best results ; ways of prevent-
ing "shut downs" and repairs: in ^ort, all that goes to make up the requirements
of a good engineer, capable of taking charge of a plant. It's plain enough for practical
men and yet of value to those high in the profession.

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

A partial list of contents is: The boiler room, cleaning boilers, firing, feeding; pumps,
inspection and repair; chimneys, sizes and cost; piping; mason work; fomidations;
testing cement; pile driving; engines, slow and high speed; valves; valve setting;
Corliss engines, setting valves, single and double eccentric; air pumps and condensers;
different types of condensers; water needed; lining up; poundis; pins not square in
crosshead or crank; engineers' tools; pistons and piston rings; bearing metsd;* hard-
ened copper; drip pipes firom cylinder jackets; belts, how made, care of; oils; greases:
testing lubricants; rules and tables, including steam tables: areas of segments;
squares and square roots; cubes and cube root; areas and circumferences of circles.
Notes on: Brick work; explosions; pumpss pump valves; heaters, economizers;
safety valves; lap, lead, and clearance. Has a complete examination for a license,
etc., etc. Second edition. 285 pages. Illustrated. Price $2.60

ENGINE RUNNER'S CATECmSM. By Robert Gbimshaw.

A practical treatise for the stationary engineer, telling how to erect, adjust, and run
the principal steam engines in use in the United States. Describing the principal
features of various special and well-known makes of engines: Temper Cut-off, Shippmg
and Receiving Foundations, Erecting and Starting, Valve Setting, Care and Use,
Emergencies, Erecting and Adjusting Special Engines.

The questions asked throughout the catechism are plain and to the point, and the
answers are given in such simple language as to be readily understood by anyone. All
the instructions given are complete and up-to-date; and they are written in a popular
style, without any technicalities or mathematical formulae. The work is of a handv
size for the pocket, clearly and well printed, nicely bound, and profusely illustrated.

To yoimg engineers this catechism will be of great value, especially to those who may
be preparing to go forward to be examined for certificates of competency; and to
engineers generally it will be of no little service, as they will find in this volume more
reaJly practical and useful information than is to be found anywhere else within a like
compass. 387 pages. Seventh edition. Price $2.00

HORSE-POWER CHART.

Shows the horse-power of any stationary engine without calculation. No matter what
the cylinder diameter of stroke, the steam pressure of cut-off, the revolutions, or
whether condensing or non-condensing, it's all there. Easy to use, accurate, and
saves time and calculations. Espiecially useful to engineers and designers. 60 cents

MODERN STEAM ENGINEERING IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. By

Gardner D. Hiscox.

This is a complete and practical work issued for Stationary Engineers and Firemen,

dealing with the care and management of boilers, engines, pumps, superheated steam.

refrigerating machinery, dynamos, motors, elevators, air compressors, and all other

branches with which the modem engineer must be familiar. Nearly 200 questions with

their answers on steam and electrical engineering, likely to be asked by the Examin-

tng Board, are included.

Among the chapters are: Historical: steam and its properties; appliances for the

? generation of steam; types of boilers; chimney and its work; heat eco.iomy of the
^ed water; steam pumps and their work; incrustation and its work; steam above
atmospheric pressure; flow of steam from nozzles; superheated steam and its work;
adiabatic expansion of steam; indicator and its work; steam engine proportions; slide
valve engines and valve motion; Corliss engine and its valve gear; compound engine
and its theory; triple and multiple expansion engine; steam turbine; refHgeration :
elevators and their management; cost of power; steam engine troubles; electric
power and electric plants. 487 pages. 405 engravings. ' 3d Edition. . . . $8.60

SlEAM ENGINE CATECHISM. By Robert Grimshaw.

This unique volume of 413 pages is not only a catechism on the question and answer
principle, but it contains formulas and worked-out answers for all the Steam problems
that appertain to the operation and management of the Steam Engine. Illustrations
of various valves and valve gear with their principles of operation are given. Thirty-
four Tables that are indispensable to every engineer and fireman that wishes to be
progressive and is ambitious to become ma.<}ter of his calling are within its pages. It is
a most valuable instructor in the service of Steam Engineering. Leading engineers
have recommended it as a valuable educator for the beginner as well as a reference book
for the engineer. It is thoroughly indexed for every detail. Every essential question
on the Steam Engine with its answer is contained in this valuable work. Sixteenth
edition. Price $8.00

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

STEAM ENGINEER'S ARITHMETIC. By Colvin-Chenet.

A practical pocket-book for the steam engineer. Shows how to work the problems of
the engine room and shows "why." Tells how to figure horsepower of engines and
boilers; area of boilers; has tables of areas and circumferences; steam tables; lias a
dictionary of engineering terms. Puts you on to all of the little kinks in figuring what-
ever there is to figure around a power plant. Tells you about the heat unit; absolute
zero: adiabatic expansion; duty of engines; factor of safety; and a thousand and one
other things; and everything is plain and simple — ^not the hardest way to figure, but
the easiest. Second Edition. . . '. 60 cents

STEAM ENGINE TROUBLES. By H. Hamkens.

It is safe to say that no book has ever been published which gives the practical en-
gineer such valuable and comprehensive information on steam engine design and
troubles. There are descriptions of cylinders, valves, pistons, frames, pillow blocks
and other bearings, connecting rods, wristplates. dashpots, reachrods, valve gears,
governors, piping, throttle, and emergency valves, safety stops, flywheels, oilers,
etc. If there is any trouble with these parts, the book raves you the reasons and
teUs how to remedy them. 350 pages. 276 illustrations. Frice .... $2.50

BOILER ROOM CHART. By Geo. L. Fowler.

A chart — size 14 x 28 inches — showing in isometric perspective the mechanism be-
lon^ng in a modem boiler room. The various parts are shown broken or removed.
80 that the internal construction is fully illustrated. Each part is given a reference
number^ and these, with the corresponding name, are given in a glossary printed
at the sides. Price 26 cents

STEAM HEATING AND VENTILATION

PRACTICAL STEAM, HOT-WATER HEATING AND VENTILATION. By
A. G. King.

This book is the standard and latest work published on the subject and has been pre-
pared for the use of all engaged in the business of steam, hot-water heating, and ventila-
tion. It is an original and exhaustive work. Tells how to get heating contracts, how
to install heating and ventilating apparatus, the best business methods to be used,
with "Tricks of the Trade" for shop use. Rules and data for estimating radiation
and cost and such tables and information as make it an indispensable work for every-
one interested in steam, hot-water heating, and ventilation. It describes all the principal
systems of steam, hot-water, vacuum, vapor, and vacuum-vapor heating, togetner
with the new accelerated systems of hot- water circulation, including chapters on
up-to-date methods of ventilation and the fan or blower system of heating and ventila-
tion. Containing chapters on: I. Introduction. II. Heat. III. Evolution of
artificial heating apparatus.^ IV. Boiler surface and settings. Y. The chimney flue.
VI. Pipe and fittings. VII. Valves, various kinds. VIII. Forms of radiating
siurfaces. IX. Locating of radiating surfaces. X. Estimating radiation. XI. Steam-
heating apparatus. Xll. Exhaust-steam heating. XIII. Hot- water heating. XIV.
Pressure systems of hot-water work. XV. Hot-water appliances. XVI. Greenhouse
heating. XVII. Vacuum vapor and vacuum exhaust heating. XVIII. Miscella-
neous heating. XIX. Radiator and pipe connections. XX. Ventilation. XXI.
Mechanical ventilation and hot-blast neating. XXII. Steam appliances. XXIII.
District heating. XXIV. Pipe and boiler covering. XXV. Temperature regulation
and heat control. XXVI. Business methods. jKX VII. Miscellaneous.* XXVIII.
Rules, tables, and useful information. 367 pages. 300 detailed engravings. Second
Edition— Revised. Price 98.60

60a PLAIN ANSWERS TO DIRECT QUESTIONS ON STEAM, HOT-WATER,

VAPOR AND VACUUM HEATING PRACTICE. By Alfred G. King.

This work, just off the press, is arranged in question and answer form ; it is intended as
a sTuide and text-book for the younger, inexperienced fitter and as a reference book for

CATALOGUE OP GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

ail fitters. This boolf tells "how" and also tells "why." No work of Its kind has;
ever been published. It answers all the questions regarding each method or system
that would be asked by the steam fitter or heating contractor, and may be used as a
text or reference book, and for examination questions by Trade Schools or Steam
Fitters' Associations. Rules, data, tables and descriptive methodti are given, to-
gether with much other detailed information of daily practical use to those engaged in
or interested in the various methods of heating. Valuable to those preparing for
examinations. Answers every question asked relating to modern bteam. Hot- Water,
Vapor and Vacuum Heating. Among the contents are: The Theory and Laws of
Heat. Method!^ of Heating. Chimneys and Flues. Boilers for Heating. Boiler
Trimmings and Settings. Radiation. Steam Heating. Boiler, Radiator and Pipe
Connections for Steam Heating. Hot Water Heating. The Two-Pipe Gravity
System of Hot Water Heating. The Circuit System of Hot Water Heating. The
. Overhead System of Hot Water Heating. Boiler, Radiator and Pipe Connections for
Gravity Systems of Hot Water Heating. Accelerated Hot Water Heating. Ex-
pansion Tank Connections. Domestic Hot Water Heating. Valves and Air valves.
Vacuum Vapor and Vacuo- Vapor Heating. Mechanical Systems of Vacuum Heating.
Non-Mechanical Vacuum Systems. Vapor Systems. Atmospheric and Modulating
Systems. Heating Greenhouses. Information, Rules and Tables. 200 pages, 127
illustrations. Octavo. Cloth. Price . . . . ' $8.00'

STEEL

STEEL: ITS SELECTION, ANNEALING, HARDENING, AND TEMPERING.
By E. R. Mabkham.

This work was formerly known as "The American Steel Worker," but on the pub-
lication of the new, re^ed edition, the publishers deemed it advisable to change its-
title to a more suitable one. It is the standard work on Hardening, Tempering,
and Annealing Steel of all kinds.

This book tells how to select, and how to work, temper, harden, and anneal steel for
everything on earth. It doesn't tell how to temper one class of tools and then leave
the treatment of another kind of .tool to your imagination and judgment, but it gives
careful instructions for every detail of every tool, whether it be a tap, a reamer or just
a screw-driver. It tells about the tempering of small watch springs, the hardening of
cutlery, and the annealing of dies. In fact, there isn't a thing that a steel worker
would want to know that isn't included. It is the standard book on selecting, harden-
ing, and tempering all grades of steel. Among the chapter headings might be mentioned
the following subjects: Introduction: the workman; steel; methods of heating;
heating tool steel; forging; annealing; hardening baths; baths for hardening; harden-
ing steel; drawing the temper after hardening; examples of hardening; pack harden-
ing; case hardening; spring tempering; making tools of machine steel; special steels;
steel for various tools; causes of trouble; high speed steels, etc. 400 pages. Very
fully illustrated. Fourth Edition. Price $8.00

HARDENING, TEMPERING, ANNEALING, AND FORGING OF STEEL.

By J. V. WOODWOBTH.

A new work treating in a clear, concise manner all modem processes for the heating,
annealing, forging, welding, hardening, and tempering of steel, making it a book of'
great practical value to the metal- working mechaiiic in general, with special directions
for the successful hardening and tempering of all steel tools used in the arts, including
milling cutters, taps, thread dies, reamers, both solid and shell, hollow mills, punches
and dies, and all kinds of sheet metal working tools, shear blades, saws, fine cutlery, and
metal cutting tools of all description, as well as for all implements of steel both large
and small. In this work the simplest and most satisfactory hardening and temper-
ing processes are given.

The uses to which the leading brands of steel may be adapted are concisely presented,
and their treatment for working under different conditions explained, also the special-
methods for the hardening and tempering of special brands.

A chapter devoted to the different processes for case-hardening is also included, and
special reference made to the adaptation of machinery steel for tools of various kinds.
Fourth Edition. 288 pages. 201 illustrations. Price S8.00-

CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS

TRACTORS

THE MODERN GAS TRACTOR. By Major Victor W. Pag£.

A complete treatise describing all types and sizes of gasoline, kerosene, and oil tractors
Considers design and construction exhaustively, gives complete instructions for care |
operation and repair, outlines all practical applications on the road and in the field.
The best and latest work on farm tractors and tractor power plants. A Work needed
by farmers, students, blacksmiths, mechanics, salesmen, implemeiit dealers, designers,
and engineers. 500 pages. Nearly 300 illustrations and fokling plates. Price $2.50

TURBINES

HARINE STEAM TURBINES. By Dr. G. Batter and O. Labche. Assisted
by E. LuDWiG and H. Vogel. Translated from the German and edited by
M. G. S. Swallow.

The book is essentially practical and discusses turbines in which the full expansion of
steam passes through a number of separate turbines arranged for driving two or mon
shafts, as in the Parsons system, and turbines in which the complete expansion d
steam from inlet to exhaust pressure occurs in a turbine on one shaft, as m the cast
of the Curtis machines.^ It will enable a designer to carry out all the ordinary calcula-
tion necessary for the'Qtii&truction of steam turbines, hence it fills a want whidi
is hardly met by larger and more theoretical works. Numerous tables, curves and
diagrams will be foimd, which explain with remarkable lucidity the reason why
turbine blades are designed as they are, the course which steam takes through tur-
bines of various types, the thermodynamics of steam turbbie calculation, the influence
of vacuum on steam consumption of steam turbines, etc. In a word, the very in-
formation which a desnner and builder of steam turbines most requires. Large
octavo, 214 pages. Fully illustrated and containing 18 tables, including an entropy
chart. Price, net $4.00

'?^:

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